chapter 37 Flashcards
the end of empire
Who assassinated Mohandas K. Gandhi on January 30, 1948?
Nathuram Godse
What was Gandhi doing on the morning before he was assassinated?
drafting a new constitution for the Indian National Congress
In the decades after 1945 (the end of WWII), peoples in the colonial world fought tenaciously for independence and then for national unity, and by 1990 nationalist movements had swept away colonial rule and given birth to over how many new nations?
90
Peoples in former colonial worlds labored to build national identities, balancing their__________ against demands for _________.
traditions; development
The British people voted Churchill out of office and his conservative government was replaced with a _______ government more inclined to _______ the empire.
Labour; dismantle
Who was the leader of the Muslim League?
Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Who was a leader of the Congress Party that worked alongside Gandhi, urging all Indians to act and feel as one nation?
Jawaharlal Nehru
What is communalism?
emphasizing religious over national identity
- Gandhi and Nehru discouraged division amongst India by communalism
In August 1946, in the midst of negotiations with the British to reach terms regarding independence, the Muslim League called for what, leading to the Great Calcutta Killing, and further fueling communal feeling?
Day of Direct Action
What was the idea of the partition of India?
the division of India into separate Hindu and Muslim states
- violated the stated ideals of men like Gandhi and Nehru who sickened at the prospect of a divided and independent India
By mid-1948 how many refugees were estimated to have made the torturous journey to one state of India or the other?
ten million
- one million died in the violence that accompanied those massive human migrations
Explain the significance of India’s breakaway from the British empire, and what it meant for decolonization across the globe.
India was the crown jewel of the British empire, and its breakaway marked a significant turning point. Just as Gandhi’s nonviolent resistance to British rule inspired nationalists around the globe before and after WWII, independence in India and Pakistan further encouraged anti-imperialist movements throughout Asia and Africa.
In addition to being a leader of the Indian National Congress alongside Gandhi, who became one of the impassioned defenders of nonalignment?
Jawaharlal Nehru
Leaders of new African and Asian countries first discussed nonalignment at what conference?
Bandung Conference
- in April 1955, leaders from 23 Asian and 6 African nations met in Bandung, Indonesia
What were the purposes of the Bandung Conference?
- to meet to find a “third path”, an alternative to choosing either the United States or the Soviet Union
- stressed neutrality in the cold war - stressed the struggle against colonialism and racism
Who was an Indonesian president who proudly proclaimed the Bandung conference as “the first international conference of coloured peoples in the history of mankind”?
Achmad Sukarno
Bandung was the precursor of the broader _________ Movement, which held occasional meetings so that its members could discuss matters of common interest, particularly their relations with the United States and the Soviet Union.
Nonaligned
Was the Nonaligned Movement successful in its primary goal to maintain formal neutrality? Why or why not?
movement suffered from chronic lack of unity among its members and ultimately failed to present a genuinely united front
- theoretically nonaligned with either cold war superpower, but many member states had close ties with one or the other which caused dissension within the movement
What was the primary goal of the Nonaligned Movement?
to maintain formal neutrality
Who was Vietnam’s nationalist communist leader who had exploited wartime conditions to advance the cause of Vietnamese independence?
Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
Who conquered Vietnam and effectively ended French rule in the waning days of World War II?
Japan
Ho Chi Minh issued the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence which was modeled on what document?
US declaration
Humiliated by their country’s easy defeat and occupation by the Germans, the French sought to reclaim their world-power status by recapturing what Vietnamese city in 1945?
Saigon
Northern nationalist communists in Vietnam were organized under what name?
Viet Minh
Who was a Vietnamese general who led Vietnamese resistance forces alongside Ho Chi Minh to mount a campaign of guerilla warfare?
Vo Nguyen Giap (1912-2013)
Where did the Viet Minh defeat the French in 1954?
the French fortress in Dienbienphu
The peace conference held in Geneva in 1954 determined what about Vietnam?
Vietnam should be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel:
North Vietnam would be controlled by Ho Chi Minh and the communist forces
South Vietnam would remain in the hands of noncommunists
With whose support did South Vietnam avoid elections and sought to build a government that would prevent the spread of communism in South Vietnam and elsewhere in Asia?
the United States
Who was the first president of the Republic of (South) Vietnam?
Ngo Dinh Diem (1901-1963)
In 1960, Vietnamese nationalists formed what organization to fight for freedom from South Vietnamese rule?
National Liberation Front (NLF)
Which US president embarked on a course of action that exponentially increased US involvement with Vietnam (included ordering a bombing campaign against North Vietnam and sending US ground troops to augment the South Vietnamese army)?
Lyndon Johnson (1908-1973)
What was Richard Nixon’s strategy of Vietnamization?
turning the war over to the South Vietnamese: extended the war into Cambodia, resumed heavy bombing in North Vietnam, opened diplomatic channels to Soviet Union and China, hoping to get them to pressure North Vietnam into a negotiated end to the war
What year was Vietnam nationally reunified?
1976
What did the Vietnamese term the war against each other, but involving the US?
the “American War”
What was the Northern Vietnamese army/military known as?
Viet Cong
Before the war, Arab states agitated for concessions under the ________ system, which limited Arab nationalist aspirations after the Great War.
mandate
Which four Arab states had gained complete independence after the war?
Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Jordan
Why were imperialist superpowers drawn to/interferred with the region of the Arab states?
its vast reserves of oil (the lifeblood of the cold war’s military-industrial complexes)
Which European power served as the mandate power in Palestine after the Great War?
Great Britian
Using which document did the British government commit itself to the support of a homeland for Jews in Palestine?
Balfour Declaration of 1917
What three circumstances encouraged the British to allow Jewish migration to Palestine under their mandate>
- Zionist movement of returning to Jewish homeland
- Balfour Declaration
- Allies’ support for it at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919
How did tensions and conflicts spurred by World War II affect the migration of Jews to Palestine, and their relationship with surrounding Palestinian Arabs?
- Arab states in Palestine gained their freedom from imperial rule, and developed pan-Arab nationalism sparked by support for their fellow Arabs in Palestine and opposition to the possibility of a Jewish state there
- Holocaust along with British policy of limiting Jewish migration to Palestine intensified the Jewish commitment to build a state capable of defending the world’s remaining Jews
What two factors intensified the Jewish commitment to build a state capable of defending the world’s remaining Jews after WWII?
- the Holocaust
- British policy of limiting Jewish migration to Palestine
Whom did the British give up Palestine to in 1947, stating that they intend to withdraw from Palestine?
turned over the region to the newly created United Nations
- delegates to the UN General Assembly debated the idea of dividing Palestine into two states, one Arab and the other Jewish
What were the conflicting interests of Palestinian Arabs and Jews that caused the British to withdraw from the region in 1947?
Arabs: insisted on complete independence under Arab rule
Jews: embarked on a course of violent resistance to the British to compel recognition of Jewish demands for self-rule and open immigration
How did Arabs inside and outside Palestine react to the decision of the UN General Assembly to divide Palestine into two distinct states?
found the solution to be unacceptable and in late 1947, civil war broke out
- Arab and Jewish troops battled each other as the British completed their withdrawal from Palestine
What was the result of the civil war between Arab and Jewish troops in Palestine?
May 1948, Jews in Palestine proclaimed the creation of the independent state of Israel
What was the relationship between Israeli and Arab forces after Israel’s proclamation of statehood?
proclamation provoked a series of military conflicts between Israeli and various Arab forces spanning five decades
What was the result of the military conflicts between Israeli and Arab forces after the Israel’s proclamation of statehood?
result of those wars, Israel substantially increased the size of its territory beyond the original area granted to it by the original UN partition
thousands of Palestinians became refugees outside the state of Israel
What popular mass movement initiated a series of demonstrations, strikes, and riots against Israeli rule in the Gaza Strip and other occupied territories?
intifada
Under whose direction did Egyptian military leaders commit themselves to opposing Israel and taking command of the Arab world?
Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1970)
Whom did Gamal Abdel Nasser and other officers stage a bloodless coup to end the monarchy against in order to develop Egypt economically and militarily and make it the fountainhead of pan-Arab nationalism?
King Farouk
Whose policy was Gamal Abdel Nasser’s internationalist position similar to?
Nehru’s nonalignment policy
- Nasser’s neutralism, like Nehru’s, was based on the belief that cold war power politics were a new form of imperialism
- condemned states that joined with foreign powers in military alliances
What three nations did the Baghdad Pact include?
British- and US -inspired alliance that included Turkey, Iraq, and Iran
How did Nasser rid Egypt of any remaining imperial presence?
- destroying the state of Israel
- giving aid to the Algerians in their war against the French
- abolishing British military rights to the Suez Canal in 1954
What happened during the Suez crisis?
Nasser decided to nationalize the Suez Canal, and use the money it collected to finance construction of a massive dam of the Nile River
- British, French, and Israeli forces combined to wrest control of the canal away from him because Nasser did not allow it
- launched military campaign against him but failed on the diplomatic level, not consulting with the United States, forcing them to withdraw
How did the Suez crisis leave Nasser and Egypt in a dominant position in the Arab world?
gained tremendous prestige, solidifying position as leader of the charge against imperial holdovers in southwest Asia and north Africa
- successfully kept imperial powers from controlling Suez canal
What did the Suez crisis mean for the relationship between the US and its allies in western Europe?
further tangled cold war power politics, DIVIDING the US and its allies in western Europe
(US strongly condemned France and Britain’s attack on Egypt for control of the Suez canal)
What two powers supported Israel’s right to exist?
the United States and the Soviet Union
In what two African colonies was the process of decolonization especially violent because imperial rule had the support of European settlers?
Algeria and Kenya
In many instances, African nations symbolized and sealed their severance from _______ control by adopting new _____ that sunned the memory of European rule and drew from the glory of Africa’s past empires.
imperial; names
What are some examples of African countries that adopted new names to symbolize their severance from imperial control and drew on the glory of Africa’s past empires?
Ghana, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe
What year was known as “the year of Africa”?
1960
Ironically, while France focused its efforts on Algeria, what other African territories did the French allow to gain their independence? How many specifically in 1960?
1956: Morocco, Tunisia
1960: thirteen French colonies in west and equatorial Africa won independence
What event touched off the Algerian revolt in May 1945?
French colonial police in the town of Sétif fired shots into a peaceful demonstration in support of Algerian and Arab nationalism
French repression + Algerian rioting = more than 8,000 Algerian Muslims died and about 100 French
The Algerian war of liberation began in 1954 under the command of what nationalist liberation group?
Front de Libération Nationale (FLN, or National Liberation Front)
What two tactics did the Front de Libération Nationale rely on that was similar to nationalist liberation groups in Asia?
- relying on bases in outlying mountainous areas
- resorting to guerilla warfare
Why was the Algerian war of liberation especially ugly (almost like civil war essentially)?
- Algerians serving the French had to kill fellow Algerians or be killed by them
- Algerian civilians often became trapped in the crossfire of war, often accused of and killed for aiding FLN guerillas
- thousands of French soldiers died, but hundreds of thousands of Algerians had died
Who gained fame as a Algerian revolutionary and as an influential proponent of national liberation for colonial peoples through violent revolution?
Frantz Fanon (1925-1961)
In his works such as “The Wretched of the Earth” (1961), what did Frantz Fanon urge of Africans in their fight for independence?
urged the use of violence against colonial oppressors as a means of overcoming the racist degradation experienced by peoples in developing or colonial nations
What movement did African intellectuals, especially in French-controlled west Africa, establish to promote pan-Africanism?
Négritude (“Blackness”)
- revived Africa’s great traditions and cultures, poets and writers expressed widely shared pride in Africa
Amidst the Négritude movement, what two areas in Africa were workers’ strikes especially prominent because of oppressive labor practices and low wages paid by colonial overlords?
Gold Coast and Northern Rhodesia
Often assuming that black Africans were _______ of self-government, imperial powers planned for a ______ transition to indpendence.
incapable; slow
The politics of what war allowed imperial powers to justify oppressive actions in the name of rooting out a subversive communist presence?
Cold war
What did Kwame Nkrumah help Ghana achieve in its freedom from British rule?
political parties and strategies for mass action took shape under his rule
- became a persuasive spokesperson for pan-African unity
- ideas and stature symbolized the changing times in Africa
What was the first sub-Saharan African country to achieve independence from colonial rule?
Ghana
The battle for independence in Kenya turned especially violent in a clash between powerful white settlers and nationalists of what Kenyan ethnic group?
the Kikuyu, one of Kenya’s largest ethnic groups
As Kikuyu tribes of Kenya participated in militant nationalist movements, how did the British government label them?
Mau Mau subversives or communists
- Kikuyu radicalism and violence had much more to do with nationalist opposition to British colonial rule
How did Kikuyu resentment of the British begin in the 1930s and 1940s?
white settlers pushed them off the most fertile highland farm areas and reduced them to the status of wage slaves or relegated them to overcrowded “tribal reserves”
- 1940s: labor strikes and violence direct action campaigns designed to force or frighten white settlers off Kikuyu lands
Despite military defeat, Kikuyu fighters broke British resolve in Kenya and gained increasing international recognition of African grievances. How did the British respond?
resisted the radical white supremacism and political domineering of the settlers in Kenya and instead responded to calls for Kenyan independence
- 1959 lifted the state of emergency, political parties formed, nationalist leaders reemerged to lead those parties
How was anticolonial agitation different in South Africa than in the rest of sub-Saharan Africa?
it was a struggle against internal colonialism, against an oppressive white regime that denied basic human and civil rights to tens of millions of South Africans
What African country’s economy was the strongest on the continent?
South Africa’s
What were the two sources of South Africa’s economic strength?
- extraction of minerals
- industrial development, which received huge boost over WWII
What political party arose in South Africa to quash any move toward black independence and instituted a harsh new set of laws designed to control the restive black population (AKA apartheid)?
Afrikaner National Party
The Afrikaner National Party’s harsh new set of laws designed to control the restive black population constituted the system known as what?
apartheid (“separateness”)
What did the system of apartheid assert?
white supremacy and institutionalized the racial segregation established in the years before 1948
- evolved into a system designed to keep blacks in a position of political, social, and economic subordination
What organization was formed in 1912 and gained new young leaders like Nelson Mandela, who inspired direct action campaigns to protest apartheid?
African National Congress
In 1955, the African National Congress (ANC) published what document proclaiming the deal of multiracial democratic rule for South Africa?
Freedom Charter
In what city near Johannesburg did white police shoot 69 black demonstrators and wounded almost 200, instituting a new era of radical activism?
Sharepville
In what year did South Africa withdraw from the British commonwealth and declare itself a republic?
1961
Despite declaring itself a republic and withdrawing from the British commonwealth in 1961, what did the 1970s and 1980s see in a new black-conscious movement?
protests against the system persisted especially by student activism
- combination of widespread black agitation and powerful international anti-apartheid boycott led to reform and a growing recognition that South Africa had to change
Who became president of South Africa in 1989 and alongside the National Party began to dismantle the apartheid system?
F. W. de Klerk (1936–)
How did F. W. de Klerk begin to dismantle the apartheid system?
- released Nelson Mandela from jail in 1990
- legalized the ANC
- worked with Mandela and the ANC to negotiated the end of white minority rule
- National Party, ANC, and other African political groups created new constitution in April 1994 holding elections that were open to people of all races (ANC won overwhelmingly)
Who became the first black president of South Africa?
Nelson Mandela
Except for what two countries did the developing nations in south, southeast, and east Asia adopt some form of authoritarian or militarist political system (many following a communist or socialist path of political development)?
Japan and India
Mao Zedong reunified China for the first time since the collapse of the _____ dynasty, transforming European communist ideology into a distinctly Chinese ________.
Qing; communism
What two aspects did Chinese economic and social transformation center around?
- rapid industrialization
- collectivization of agriculture
(sound familiar ?? it’s basically Stalin’s Five Year Plan for the Soviet Union)
What was the result of Mao Zedong’s introduction of their first Five-Year Plan and series of agrarian laws?
- emphasized improvements in infrastructure and the expansion of heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods
- promoted unprecedented transfer of wealth among the population, virtually eliminating economic inequality at the village level
What did Chinese social reforms look like for women?
supported equal rights for women: Chinese authorities introduced marriage laws that eliminated practices such as child or forced marriages, gave women equal access to divorce, and legalized abortion, foot binding became practice of the past
What were designed to continued China’s push for development, but contrailiy hampered the very political and economic development that Mao Zedong sought?
- Great Leap Forward (1958-1961)
- Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)
Mao envisioned his Great Leap Forward as way to overtake the industrial production of more _________ nations, and to that end he worked to _________ all land and to manage all business and industrial enterprises collectively.
developed; collectivize
What have some people dubbed the Great Leap Forward because it failed?
“Giant Step Backward”
How did Mao Zedong’s Great Leap Forward policy impact agricultural production in China?
the peasants, recalcitrant (those uncooperative), and exhausted did not meet quotas, series of bad harvests also contributed to one of the deadliest famines in history
How did Mao Zedong worsen the agricultural disasters caused by his Great Leap Forward policy?
did not accept the reality of bad harvests and famine, and blamed sparrows for eating too much grain
- ordered the peasants to kill all of the sparrows, leaving insects free to consume what was left of the crops
- between 1959 and 1962 as many as 20 million Chinese may have died of starvation and malnutrition in this crisis
Who were the youthful zealots empowered to cleanse Chinese society of opponents to Mao Zedong’s rule?
the Red Guards (wow way to be a Stalin doppelganger)
What was the purpose of Mao Zedong’s Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution?
designed to root out Chinese revisionism, especially among Communist Party leaders and others in positions of authority
- subjected millions of people to humiliation, persecution and death (the elite constituted the major targets of the Red Guards)
What were the two major effects of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution on China?
cost China years of stable development and gutted its educational system
- did not die down until after Mao Zedong’s death in 1976
Who was Mao Zedong’s successor who had suffered the same fate as millions of other Chinese during the Cultural Revolution, and came to power to heal the nation from the turmoil caused by cleansing of so many Chinese?
Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997)
As Deng Xiaoping came to power in 1981, the 1980s are often refereed to as the years of what?
“Deng’s Revolution”
To counteract the damage caused by Mao Zedong’s rule and strict communist policies in China, Deng Xiaoping opened the nation to what influences that were so suspect under Mao’s rule?
foreign, capitalist values
- moderated Mao’s commitment to Chinese self-sufficiency and isolation and engineered China’s entry into the international financial and trading system (facilitated by the normalization of relations between China and the US in the 1970s)
How did Deng Xiaoping rebuild the professional, intellectual, and managerial elite needed for China’s modern development? How did these actions end up going against his values?
sent tens of thousands of Chinese students to foreign universities, students were exposed to the democratic societies of western Europe and the United States
- staged pro-democracy demonstrations in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square in 1989
- Deng wary of zealous revolutionary movements, approved bloody crackdown and later faced hostile world opinion after crushing student movement
What was the central issue facing China as it entered the global economy?
how (or whether) to reap economic benefits without compromising its identity and its authoritarian political system
What was the nation that was able to maintain its political stability and its democratic system after gaining independence, and despite the crises that shook other developing nations?
India
- remained committed to free elections and a critical press
Who was Jawaharlal Nehru’s daughter who became leader of the Indian National Congress Party, served as prime minister of India from 1966 to 1977, as well as pioneered India’s “green revolution”?
Indira Gandhi (1917-1984)
What was the results/drawbacks of Indira Gandhi’s “green revolution” from 1980 to 1984?
increased agricultural yields for India’s 800 million people
- new agricultural policies aided wealthier farmers, but the masses of peasant farmers fell deeper into poverty
- in addition to the poverty that drove Indians to demonstrations of dissatisfaction with Gandhi’s government, India was beset by other troubles like overpopulation and continuing sectarian conflicts
Problems that rose from Indira Gandhi’s “green revolution” prompted her to declare a national emergency that suspended democratic processes. What did Gandhi use her power under the emergency to do?
to forward one of India’s most needed social reforms, birth control
- engaged in repressive birth control policies rather than persuading or tempting Indians to control the size of their families: involuntary sterilization, record 8 million performed, and riots ensued
After coming back into power in 1980, what secessionist movement did Indira Gandhi face, that ultimately led to her assassination by two of her Sikh bodyguards?
uprising by Sikhs who wanted greater autonomy in the Punjab region
- Gandhi unable and unwilling to compromise in view of the large number of groups agitating for a similar degree of autonomy, and ordered army to attack the sacred Golden Temple in Amritsar, which harbored armed Sikh extremists
Who was Indira Gandhi’s son who took over the leadership of India in 1985, and offered reconciliation to the Sikhs?
Rajiv Gandhi (1944-1991)
How did the cold war split the Arab-Muslim world and make pan-Arab unity more difficult?
some states allied with the US, some allied with the Soviet Union, some shifted between the two
In addition to the cold war encouraging some Arab states to ally with the US or the Soviet Union, what else complicated the attainment of Arab unity?
religious divisions:
Sunni and Shia Muslims followed different theologies and foreign policies
In the 1970s, Muslims in many countries began to seek, sometimes violently, the revival of Islamic values in the political and social sphere. This was known as what?
Islamism
What did many proponents of Islamism believe was the cause of the Muslim world’s decline?
abandonment of Islamic traditions
- blamed European and American models of economic development and political and cultural norms for economic and political failure as well as for secularization and its attendant breakdown of traditional social and religious values
Convinced that the Muslim world was under siege, what did concept did extremists use to rationalize and legitimize terrorism and revolution?
jihad (the right and duty to defend Islam and the Islam community from unjust attack)
The vast sums of money that poured in from Iran’s ____ industry helped finance industrialization, and the US provided the military equipment that enabled Iran to become a bastion of __________ in the region.
oil; anticommunism
Why did Iranians oppose the rule of Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in the 1970s (three reasons)?
- Shia Muslims despised the shah’s secular regime
- Iranian small businesses detested the influence of US corporations on the economy
- leftist politicians rejected the shah’s repressive policies
How was Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini significant to the Islamist movement?
revolution gained force and power as captured by him and it took on a strongly anti-US cast
What did Iranians do to minimize the influence of the US in the 1970s?
- shut US military bases and confiscated US-owned economic ventures
- captured 69 hostages at the US embassy in Tehran in retaliation because the shah was allowed to travel to the US for medical treatment
Iranian Islam was the ________ sect of Shia Islam, and one of Iran’s neighbors, Iraq, attempted to take advantage of the revolution to invade Iran.
minority
Iraq built a formidable military machine which it largely owed to oil revenues and the efforts of what president of Iraq?
Saddam Hussein (1937-2006)
How many soldiers were estimated to have been killed in the Iran-Iraq War?
as many as one million soldiers
How did Mahmoud Ahmadinejad increase his status in the Islamic world while intensifying tensions with the United States?
- touted Iran’s nuclear program
- antipathy to the state of Israel
Two years after the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein’s troops invaded Kuwait and incited what war?
Gulf War
- result was a decisive military defeat for Iraq, at the hands of an international coalition led by the US, and further hardships for Iraqi people
As European powers departed their decolonized lands, they left behind territories whose borders were ________ conveniences that did not correspond to any indigenous economic or ethnic divisions.
artificial
- historically, hostile communities found themselves jammed into a single “national” state
What organization was created in 1963 by 32 member states that recognized the issues of artificial borders in Africa, and attempted to prevent conflicts that could lead to intervention by former colonial powers?
the Organization of African Unity (OAU)
Describe how poverty was a central issue amongst African peoples and their building of stable socieites?
increased tensions and made the absence of adequate administration and welfare programs more glaring
(it made it more obvious that they needed these things)
- prevented nations from accumulating capital that could have contributed to a sound political and economic infrastructure
What aspect of Africa made its economic prospects after decolonization not so bleak?
it’s being rich in mineral resources, raw materials, and agricultural products
Why did many newly independent nations maintain financial links with ex-colonial powers?
to help finance economic development as many newly independent nations lacked the capital, the technology, and the foreign markets to exploit their natural wealth
Describe Latin America’s relationship with the US and why it had to deal with neocolonialism.
United States not only intervened militarily when its interests were threatened, but also influenced economies through investment and full or part ownership of enterprises such as the oil industry
Only during whose presidency were the reforms guaranteed to Mexicans by the Constitution of 1917 invoked?
President Lázaro Cárdenas
What aspects of government were championed in Lázaro Cárdenas’s rule (invoked reforms guaranteed to Mexicans by the Constitution of 1917)?
- state’s right to redistribute land after confiscation and compensation (returned 45 million acres to peasants)
- claim to government ownership of the subsoil and its products (wrested away control of the oil industry from foreign investors)
Lázaro Cárdenas nationalization of the oil industry allowed for the creation of what national oi company in control of Mexico’s petroleum products?
Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX)
The revenues generated from Mexico’s Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) company contributed to a period of prosperity that lasted for decades. What was it called?
“El Milagro Mexicano”
Why was Argentina able remain relatively independent of US control and become a leader in the Latin American struggle against US and European economic and political intervention in the region?
its geographic position far to the south
What was Argentina’s expansive economy based on?
cattle raising and agriculture, a booming urban life, the beginnings of an industrial base, and a growing middle class in a population composed of mostly migrants from Europe
Given the _______ central role in its politics, however, Argentina became a model of a less positive form of political organization: the often brutal and deadly sway of military rulers.
military’s
How did Juan Perón garner immense popularity among large segments of the Argentine population?
partly because he appealed to the more downtrodden Argentines
What did Juan Perón promote in his rule?
promoted a nationalistic populism, calling for industrialization, support of the working class, and protection of the economy from foreign control
What were the poor, who Juan Perón and his wife Eva Perón trielessly ministered to and made up the majority of Juan’s supporters, known as?
descamisados (“shirtless ones”)
Who was Juan Perón’s wife who reigned as Argentina’s first lady from 1946 to 1952, and transformed herself to a stunningly beautiful political leader, tirelessly ministering to the needs of the poor?
Eva Perón (Argentines embraced her as “Evita”, meaning little Eva)
What did Eva Perón create the Eva Perón foundation for?
to institutionalize and extend charitable endeavors of administering to the needs of the poor
How did military rule in Argentina take a sinister turn in the late 1970s and early 1980s?
dictators approved the creation of death squads that fought a “dirty war” against suspected subversives
- calls for return to democratic politics increased in the aftermath of the dirty war
What organization did Nicaraguan women establish to agitate for both national and women’s liberation in 1977?
Women Concerned about National Crisis and fought as part of the Sandinista Front for National Liberation (FSLN)
What did Nicaraguan women rename the Sandinista Front for National Liberation in dedicating themselves to ridding the nation of Somoza rule?
Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (AMNLAE)
- acknowledged the first woman who died in the battle against Somoza regime
What was the slogan of the AMNLAE?
“No revolution without women’s emancipation: no emancipation without revolution”
What was the last nation in Latin America to incorporate women into the political process?
Paraguay
In many Latin American nations, landowning elites who gained power during the colonial era were able to maintain their dominant position, thus how did many societies look like/were divided?
societies remained divided between the few rich, usually supported by the United States, and the masses of the poor
How did many Latin American nations prosper during WWII, taking advantage of world market needs and pursuing greater industrial development?
Profits flowed into these countries during and after the war, and nations in the region experienced sustained economic growth through
- expanded export trade and
- diversification of foreign markets
Who was an Argentine economist who worked for the United Nations Commission for Latin America, and explained Latin America’s economic problems in global terms?
Raul Prebisch (1901-1985)
What theory did Raul Prebisch craft of economic development?
“dependency” theory
What did Raul Prebisch’s “dependency” theory say of economic development?
developed industrial nations, such as those in North America and Europe, dominated the international economy and profited at the expense of less developed and industrialized nations burdened with export-oriented, unbalanced economies that were a legacy of colonialism
What did Raul Prebisch deem developed and industrialized nations that were said to dominate international economy?
the “center”
What did Raul Prebisch deem developing and industrializing nations that were said to be at the expense of developed nations?
“periphery”
What did Raul Prebisch claim was the solution to breaking the unequal relationship between the center and the periphery?
developing nations on the periphery needed to protect and diversify domestic trade and to use strategies of import-substituting industrialization to promote further industrial and economic growth
