chapter 28 Flashcards
revolutions and national states in the atlantic world
Under what name did Marie Gouze win some fame as a journalist, actress, and playwright?
Olympe de Gouges
During the French Revolution, what did Olympe de Gouges campaign for?
raise the standing of women in French society:
- called for more education and demanded that women share equal rights in family property
- freedom and equality were inalienable rights of women as well as men
- insisted on the rights of women to vote, speak their minds freely, participate in making of law, and hold public office
In what piece of writing did Gouges claim the same rights for women that revolutionary leaders had granted to men in August 1789?
“Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen”
How did Revolutionary leaders react to Olympe de Gouges’s declaration of women’s rights?
- dismissed her appeal as a publicity stunt, refused to put women’s rights on their political agenda
- executed her in 1793 because her affection for Marie Antoinette and persistent crusade for women’s rights
What two main ideas did Revolutionary leaders promote during the Enlightenment?
- political authority arose from the people and worked to establish states in the interests of the people rather than the rulers
- encouraged the consolidation of national states as the principal form of political organization
During the late 19th and 20th centuries, efforts to do what two things created the most powerful and dynamic movements in world history?
- harness nationalist sentiments (attitude, thought, or judgement prompted by feeling)
- form states based on national identity
What is popular sovereignty?
the notion that legitimate political authority resides not in kings but, rather, in the people who make up a society
Isaac Newton’s vision of the universe was so powerful and persuasive that its influence extended well beyond science as thinkers across Europe launched an ambitious project to transform human thought and use what to transform the world?
REASON.
- abandoned Aristotelian philosophy, Christian theology, and other traditionally recognized authorities
- sought to subject the human world to purely rational analysis
What movement was the result of thinkers’ work abandon traditionally recognized authorities, and subject the human world to purely rational analysis
the ENLIGHTENMENT
Which English philosopher sought to discover natural laws of politics and attacked divine-right theories?
John Locke
- advocated constitutional government on the grounds that sovereignty resides in the people rather than the state or its rulers
John Locke provided much of the theoretical justification for what revolution?
Glorious Revolution and establishment of constitutional monarchy in England
Who was a Scottish philosopher who held that laws of supply and demand determine what happens in the marketplace?
Adam Smith
Who was a French nobleman who sought to establish a science of politics and discover principles that would foster political liberty in a prosperous and stable state?
Baron de Montesquieu
Where was the center of Enlightenment thought?
France
- prominent intellectuals known as “philosophes” advanced the cause of reason
Who were the philosophes of the Enlightenment?
not philosophers in the traditional sense, so much as public intellectuals
- addressed their works more to the educated public than to scholars
- composed histories, novels, dramas, satires, and pamphlets on religious, moral, and political issues
Which philosophe epitomized the spirit of the Enlightenment under the pen name Voltarie?
Francois-Marie Arouet (1694-1778)
Who were the targets of Voltarie’s caustic wit displayed through his writing?
Roman Catholic church and French monarchy
What was Voltaire’s battle cry amidst his long literary campaign against the Roman Catholic church?
“écrasez l’infame” (“crush the damned thing”), referring to the church which he considered an agent of oppression
Some philosophes were conventional __________, and a few turned to __________. Like Voltaire however, most of them were ______.
Christians; atheism; deists
What did deists believe?
- in existence of a god, but denied the supernatural teachings of Christianity, such as Jesus’ virgin birth and his resurrection
- universe was an orderly realm
- powerful god set the universe in motion and established natural laws that govern it, but did not take a personal interest in its development or intervene in its affairs
Most philosophes believed that what would bring about a new era of constant progress?
rational understanding of human and natural affairs
Philosophes believed that progress what the ultimate ideology, and in order to achieve progress what two things must occur?
- natural science would lead to greater human control over the world
- rational sciences of human affairs would lead to individual freedom and the construction of prosperous, just, and equitable society
(human control + individual freedom through rational understanding = PROGRESS)
Enlightenment thought encouraged the __________ of Christian values, with a new set of secular values arising from _______ rather than ________.
replacement; reason; revelation
(reason vs. revelation = replacing Christian values)
Some societies, especially those with weak central leadership, also relied on _________ governments, in which privileged elites supervised public affairs.
aristocratic
How did kings and emperors throughout the world often justify their rule?
- identified themselves with deities
- claimed divine sanction for their authority
What is SOVEREIGNTY?
political supremacy and the authority to rule
The philosophes rarely challenged monarchical rule, but sought instead to do what in order to question long-standing notions of sovereignty?
sought to make kings responsible for the people they governed
- regarded government as the result of a contract between rulers and ruled
What influential theories of contractual government did John Locke assert in his “Second Treatise of Civil Government”?
- government arose in the remote past when people decided to work together, form civil society, and appoint rulers to protect and promote their common interests (simple explanation of how government is the product of people, people coming together!!)
- individuals granted political rights to their rulers but retained personal rights to life, liberty, and property (individuals are to grant authority to rulers, and in the process do not give up their own authority over their own lives to another)
Locke’s political thought relocated sovereignty, removing it from _______ as divine agents and vesting it in the ________ of a society.
rulers; people
Philosophes such as Voltaire represented the persecution of __________ _________ and censorship of ______ ________.
religious minorities; royal officials
Who was a French-Swiss thinker who was prominent advocate of political equality, and identified with simple working people, deeply resenting the privledges enjoyed by elite classes.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
In what influential book did Jean-Jaques Rousseau argue that members of a society were collectively the sovereign?
“The Social Contract” (1762)
Enlightenment thought on freedom, equality, and popular sovereignty reflected the interest of whom?
educated and talented men who sought to increase their influence and enhance their status in society
- of common birth and comfortable means but didn’t envision a society in which they shared political rights with women, children, peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color
Enlightenment ideals didn’t spread naturally or inevitably but, rather, through what?
when social reformers and revolutionaries claimed rights previously denied to them by ruling authorities and elite classes
From 1754 to 1763, British forces waged an extremely expensive conflict in North America known as what?
the French and Indian War
The French and Indian War merged with what other conflict?
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
- British and French forces battled each other in Europe and India as well as North America
- ensured British colonies in North America would prosper
What two factors contributed to the weakening of royal power in the British’s North American colonies?
- geographic distance separated England and the colonies
- inevitable inefficiency of imperial bureaucracy
Faced with staggering financial difficulties arising from the Seven Years’ War, what did the British do to the North American colonies?
Parliament passed legislation to levy new taxes and bring order to far flung trading empire
- expected that North American colonies would bear faire share of the empire’s tax burden and respect imperial trade policies
How did the North American colonies react to Parliament’s levying of new taxes to pay off their debt?
extremely unpopular in North America:
- objected to strict enforcement of navigation laws
- resented imposition of taxes through Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Townshend Act, and Tea Act
- took offense at Quartering Act
What were navigation laws imposed on the North American colonies by British parliament?
required cargoes to travel in British ships and clear British customs
What did the Quartering Act require?
required colonists to provide housing and accommodations for British troops
Through all of their expressions of resistance, what did the colonists argue against British Parliament?
- Parliament couldn’t do anything to the colonies that it couldn’t do in Britain because the Americans were protected by all the common-law rights of the British
- embraced legal traditions demonstrated during English civil war; constitutional precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament’s consent
Colonists were using Brittain’s own argument against them, essentially pointing out the hypocrisy in their actions
In what document was the concept of an ruler being unable to govern without the consent of the greater population (essentially, English monarch being unable to govern without Parliament’s consent) enshrined?
Bill of Rights (1689)
- established that the consent of Parliament is required for the implementation of any new taxes
British colonists responded to new parliamentary levies with what slogan?
“no taxation without representation”
How else did British colonists rebel against the British crown, and further their “no taxation without representation” cause?
- boycotted British products
- physically attacked British officials
- mounted protests like the Boston Tea Party (1773)
- organized the Continental Congress (1744) which coordinated colonies’ resistance to British policies
In what conflict did the war of American independence begin?
1775- British troops and colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington near Boston
On July 4 1776, the Continental Congress adopted a document titled what?
“The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America”–the Declaration of Independence
How did the Declaration of Independence echo John Locke’s contractual theory of government?
it argued that:
- individuals established governments to secure those rights (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness)
- held that governments derive their power and authority from “the consent of the governed”
At the beginning of the war for independence, what advantages did Britain enjoy over the colonial rebels?
- clear lines of authority
- most powerful navy in the world
- competent army
- sizable population of loyalists in the colonies
- overall colonial population with mixed sentiments about revolution
What were the people who supported the American revolution called?
patriots
- they were in the majority of the colonial population
What were the people who were loyal to the British monarchy called?
“loyalists” or “Tories”
- made up 20 percent of the white population of the colonies
Which group was most notably neutral in the conflict between colonists and Britain?
Religious Society of Friends of Pennsylvania, religious movement better known as the Quakers
What did most native Americans east of the Mississippi think about the conflict between the colonists and Britain?
distrusted the colonists, and supported the British cause
Rather than advocating slave revolts, how did the British exploit the colonists’ fear of slave revolts while also reassuring loyal slave owners and wealthy planters that their slave property would remain secure?
commonly criticized by irony, ridicule, or sarcasm, American advocates of independence for their hypocritical calls for freedom while many of their leaders were slave holders
What disadvantages did Britain have while waging a war in a distant land full of opponents?
Britain had to ship supplies and reinforcements across a stormy ocean
Who provided strong and imaginative military leadership for the colonial army?
George Washington (1732-1799)
Which European states helped the rebels chip away at the British hegemony in the Atlantic Ocean basin?
France, Spain, the Netherlands, and several German principalities
How did the American Revolution come to an end?
Under command of George Washington, American and French forces surrounded British forces of Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia
- laid 20-day siege, and British forces surrendered in October 1781
September 1783: diplomats concluded the Peace of Paris, by which British government formally recognized American Independence
What major step in the organization of a republic following the war for American independence was taken in 1787?
a constitutional convention drafted the blueprint for a new system of government–the Constitution of the United States–which emphasized the rights of individuals
What rights did the Constitution grant? How was it non inclusive of all peoples, despite encouraging popular sovereignty?
- guaranteed individual liberties such as freedom of speech, of the press, and of religion
- DID NOT grant political and legal equality to all inhabitants of the newly independent land
- according full rights ONLY to men of property, withheld from landless men, women, slaves, and indigenous peoples
With the extension of _______ rights, American society broadened the implications of the ______________ values of freedom and equality as well as popular sovereignty.
civil; Enlightenment
How was the cause of the French Revolution different than the American Revolution, in terms of what revolutionary leaders fought for?
- Revolutionary leaders of the American Revolution sought independence from British imperial rule, but were content to retain British law and much of their British social and cultural heritage
- French revolutionary leaders refused to be content with or associated with existing society, seeking to replace with new political, social, and cultural structures
What did French revolutionary leaders refer to existing society, the one they wanted to escape and reform, as?
“ancien régime” (“old order”)
What financial disparities did the French royal government face in the 1780s?
- approx. half of royal government’s revenue went to pay off war debts and additional quarter went to French armed forces
- King Louis XVI unabled to raise more revenue from the overburdened peasantry, sought to increase taxes on nobility which was met with great protest
What was the Estates General?
an assembly that represented the entire French population through groups known as estates
What is an estate, and how many were there in the ancien régime?
political classes; there are 3 estates
What did the first estate of the Estates General consist of?
about 100,000 Roman Catholic clergy
What did the second estate of the Estates General consist of?
about 400,000 nobles
What did the third estate of the Estates General consist of?
the rest of the population that wasn’t included in the first two estates: about 24 million serfs, free peasants, and urban residents
Even though the third estate of the Estates General consisted of as many delegates as the other two estates combined, how did their numerical superiority not offer any advantage when voting on issues?
voting took place by estate, one vote for each, not by individuals
In May 1789 King Louis XVI called the Estates General into session at the royal palace of Versailles hoping what?
that new taxes would be authorized
What happened when the King Louis XVI called the Estates General into session at Versailles in May 1789?
Louis never controlled the assembly:
- third estate demanded political and social reform
- first and second estates prevented efforts to push measures through the Estates General
On June 17 1789, what happened to the Estates General?
the third estate took the dramatic step of seceding from the Estates General and proclaiming themselves to be the National Assembly
What happened on July 14 1789 in France?
Parisian crowd stormed Bastille in search for weapons, killed defendants of the jail and arsenal
- news of the violent event spread and sparked insurrections in cities throughout France
What document/declaration articulated the guiding principles of the National Assembly’s broad program of political and social reform?
the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen”
What did the “Declaration of the RIghts of Man and the Citizen” declare?
- proclaimed equality of all men
- sovereignty resided in the people
- asserted individual rights to liberty, property, and security
What three things did the National Assembly take as their goals when reconfiguring French society?
liberty, equality, and fraternity
How did the National Assembly alter the first estate?
- seizing church lands
- abolishing first estate
- defining clergy as civilians
- requiring clergy to take an oath of loyalty to the state
What did the constitution promulgated by the National Assembly assert regarding the King’s rights and role in French society?
king= chief executive official, but deprived of legislative authority
With the efforts of the National Assembly redefining the roles of civilians and the king, France became a ____________ _______ in which men of property (about half the adult population) had the right to vote in elections to choose legislators.
constitutional monarchy
What gave the National National Assembly the pretext to declare war against Austria and Prussia in April 1792, and in the following year, on Spain, Britain, and the Netherlands?
- Efforts by the French nobility to mobilize foreign powers in support of the king
- restoration of the ancien regime
What was the Convention created by French revolutionary leaders out of fear of military defeat and counterrevolution?
a new legislative body elected by universal manhood suffrage, which abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic
What was the universal conscription that drafted people and resources for use in the war against invading forces in France?
levée en masse (“mass levy”)
The Convention made frequent use of the _________ that brought about supposedly human executions by quickly severing a victim’s head.
guillotine
Who was a lawyer by training that emerged during the revolution as a ruthless but unpopular radical, dominating the Committee of Public Safety in France?
Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)
- known as “The Incorruptible”
What was the Committee of Public Safety?
the executive authority of the Republic
What was the Jacobins party in France? What did they believe?
believed passionately that France needed complete restructuring, and they unleashed a campaign of terror to promote their revolutionary agenda
How did the Jacobins party attempt to eliminate Christianity in French society?
- closing churches
- forcing priests to take wives
- promoted a new “cult of reason” as a secular alternative to Christianity
- reorganized the calendar, to eliminate religious observance
In addition to eliminating Christianity in France, how else did the Jacobin party restructure French society?
- proclaimed the inauguration of new historical era with the Year I
- encouraged citizens to display revolutionary zeal by wearing working-class clothes
- granted increased rights to women by permitting them to inherit property and divorce their husbands (did not permit voting or participation in political affairs)
- made frequent use of the guillotine
What rights did the Jacobins grant to women in French society?
permitted them to inherit property and divorce husbands but did not permit for them to vote or participate in political affairs
Many victims of the Jacobin’s reign of terror were ironically who?
fellow radicals who fell out of favor with Robespierre and the Jacobins
- instability of revolutionary leadership eventually undermined confidence in the regime itself
When did the Convention arrest Robespierre and his allies, convict them of tyranny, and sent them to the guillotine?
July 1794
After the Robespierre and the Jacobins were eliminated from the Convention, what group came to power and ruled France under a new institution?
the Directory (1795-1799)
How was the work of the Directory more pragmatic (realistic in their approach) than previous revolutionary leaders?
unable to solve military and economic problems that plagued revolutionary France
- sought a middle way between ancien regime and radical revolution, lurching from one policy to another
- Directory faced constant challenges to its authority
How and when did the Directory come to an end?
came to an end in November 1799 when a young general named Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup and seized power
Who was born to a minor noble family of Corsica and studied at French military schools and became an officer in the army of King Louis XVI, and a general at age 24?
Napoleon Bonaparte
Through what campaigns or uprisings did Napoleon Bonaparte defend the Directory and establish French rule?
1796-1797, drove Austrian army from northern Italy and established French rule there
1798: mounted an invasion of Egypt to gain access to the Red Sea and threaten British control of the sea route to India (ended in British victory)
1799: overthrew the Directory, set up new government
What was Napoleon’s new government in France called? How was power divided in this government?
the Consulate:
- shared power with two other consuls, but Napoleon was real master of France
- having essentially established a dictatorship and crowned himself emperor in 1802
What was the pact that Napoleon made with the Roman Catholic church in order to make peace and agreement with the pope?
the Concordat
What did the Concordat pact between the French government (initiated by Napoleon) and the Roman Catholic church assert?
provided that:
1. French state would retain church lands seized during the revolution
2. state agreed to pay clerics’ salaries
3. state would recognize Roman Catholic Christianity as the preferred faith of France
4. extended freedom of religion to Protestant Christians and Jews
In 1804, Napoleon promulgated what body of civil law that helped further stabilize French society?
the Civil Code
What did Napoleon’s Civil Code establish?
- affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult men
- established a merit-based society in which individuals qualified for education and employment because of talent rather than birth or social standing
- protected private property
- confirmed many of the moderate revolutionary policies of the National Assembly
- retracted measures passed by the more radical Convention
- restored patriarchal authority in the family
Although he approved the Enlightenment ideal of ___________, Napoleon was no champion of ___________ _________ or _____________ ____________.
equality; intellectual freedom; representative government
How did Napoleon limit intellectual freedom and representative government?
- limited free speech, routinely censored newspapers and other publications
- established secret police force relying heavily on spies and detained suspected political opponents by the thousands
- made systematic use of propaganda to manipulate public opinion
- ignored elective bodies and surrounded himself with military officers who ensured that representative assemblies did not restrict his authority
- founded dynasty that set his family above and apart from the people
How/where did Napoleon extend his authority throughout Europe?
conquered Iberian and Italian peninsulas:
- occupied the Netherlands
- inflicted humiliating defeats on Austrian and Prussian forces
- sent his brothers and other relatives to rule conquered and occupied lands
- forced Austria, Prussia, and Russia to ally with him and respect French hegemony in Europe
How did Napoleon’s empire begin to fall apart?
after he decided to invade Russia:
- led army of 600,000 soldiers to Moscow, captured city, but Russian tsar withdrew and set city ablaze, leaving Napoleon’s army without adequate shelter or supplies
- coalition of Napoleon’s enemies (British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies) converged on France and forced Napoleon to abdicate his throne
Where was Napoleon exiled after his enemies forced him to abdicate his throne in April 1814?
exiled to Mediterranean island of Elba, near Corsica
What did Napoleon do after being exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba?
escaped Elba, returned to France, and reconstituted his army, ruled France for 100 days before British army defeated him at Waterloo in Belgium
After his 100-day rule and defeat by the British army at Waterloo in Belgium, what did European powers do to Napoleon?
banished him to the remote and isolated island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, where he died of natural causes in 1821
What were the three main Enlightenment ideals?
FREEDOM, EQUALITY, and POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
The spirit of revolution in America and France, inspired revolutionary movements where else?
In the Caribbean and Latin America: slave revolts, revolutionary leaders mounted independence movements in Mexico, Central America, and South America
Whereas the American and French Revolutions guaranteed political and legal rights to white men, social reformers sought to extend those rights to whom?
women and slaves of African ancestry
Of the 40,000 white colonials of Saint-Domingue, what was the first class they were subdivided into?
- European-born Frenchmen who monopolized colonial administrative posts
- class of plantation owners, chiefly minor aristocrats who hoped to return to France as soon as possible
- lower class whites, which included artisans, shopkeepers, slave dealers, and day laborers
Of the 40,000 white colonials of Saint-Domingue, what was the second class they were subdivided into?
comprised about 28,000 “gens de couleur” (French for “people of color”)
- most of whom were mulattoes
- some were black
- many were artisans, domestic servants, or overseers
Of the 40,000 white colonials of Saint-Domingue, what was the third class they were subdivided into?
about 500,000 slaves
- some whom were mulattoes, most were African-born
By the late 18th century, Saint-Domingue had many large communities of __________, who maintained their own societies and sometimes attacked plantations in search of food, weapons, tools, and additional recruits.
maroons
How did the American Revolution spark violent political and social revolution in Saint-Domingue?
French policy supported North American colonists against British rule, so colonial governors in Saint-Domingue sent about 500 gens de couleur to fight in the American war for independence
- these people would return to Saint-Domingue with the intention of reforming society there
How did the French Revolution spark violent political and social revolution in Saint-Domingue?
When French revolution broke out, white settlers in Saint-Domingue sought the right to govern themselves, opposed proposals to grant political and legal equality to the gens de couleur
- civil war broke out between white settlers and gens de couleur
The conflict between white settlers and the gens de couleur of Saint-Domingue expanded dramatically when who organized a slave revolt?
Voudou priest named Boukman
What gave African slaves some advantage in amidst the violent chaos that broke out in Saint-Domingue?
- many slaves were battle-tested veterans of wars in Africa, and were able to draw on their military experience to organize large armies
- found recruits and reinforcements in Saint-Domingue’s maroon communities
Who called himself Louverture, and rose to position as a skilled organizer, successfully leading the gens de couleur against white settlers in Saint-Domingue?
Francois-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803)
Francois-Dominique Toussaint called himself “Louverture” from what French term meaning “the opening”?
“l’ouverture”, one who created an opening in enemy ranks
How did Toussaint rise to higher ranks, and establish his reputation as a strong leader and organizer of disciplined armies?
- son of slaves, learned to read and write from Roman Catholic priest
- rose to position of livestock overseer on Saint-Domingue
- free man since 1776, Toussaint astute judge of human character and actually helped his masters escape to a safe place
- joined rebels in 1791 slave revolt
In 1801, what did Toussaint do to grant equality and citizenship to all residents of Saint-Domingue?
promulgated a constitution
- stopped short of declaring independence from France because he didn’t want to provoke Napoleon into attacking the island
What happened to Toussaint despite trying to avoid conflict with Napoleon?
Napoleon dispatched troops to restore French authority in Saint Domingue
- Toussaint attempted to established peaceful settlement, but French commander sent him to France where he died in jail of maltreatment in 1803
When did Saint-Domingue declare independence and proclaim the establishment of Haiti?
late in 1803, declared independence
January 1 1804 proclaimed establishment of Haiti (“land of mountains”)
What grievances did the creoles of Iberian colonies have, and what inspiration did they draw from Enlightenment thought?
- resented administrative control and economic regulations imposed by Iberian powers
- drew inspiration in that they took part in tax revolts and popular uprisings
- sought to displace the peninsulares, but retain their privileged position in society
Between 1810 and 1825, creoles led movements that brought independence to all Spanish colonies in the Americas except for what two?
Cuba and Puerto Rico
How did Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal affect the struggle for independence in the Iberian colonies?
Napoleon’s invasion weakened royal authority in the Iberian colonies, and the struggle for independence began, revolts against Spanish rule broke out
Who was a parish priest who rallied indigenous peoples and mestizos against colonial rule in a serious peasant rebellion?
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811)
How did Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rally people to his cause during the fight for independence from Spain?
- invoking the name of popular and venerated Virgin of Guadalupe
- calling for death of Spaniards
When is Mexico’s principal national holiday, and what was significant about this day in history?
September 16, 1810
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla became the symbol of Mexican independence, and this was the day he proclaimed his revolt
How and when did Spanish colonial rule come to an end?
1821, when creole general Augustín de Iturbide (1783-1824) declared independence from Spain
- year later he declared himself emperor of Mexico
Even though Augustín de Iturbide declared himself emperor, after declaring independence from Spain, what happened to his empire in Mexico?
- he was an able general, but an incompetent administrator
- 1823 creole elites deposed him and established a republic
- two years later southern regions of Mexican empire declared their own independence
- they formed a Central American Federation until 1838 when they split into independent states
What independent states did the Central American Federation of the southern Mexican empire split into?
Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica
Who was a fervent republican steeped in Enlightenment ideas about popular sovereignty whose goal was to weld the former Spanish colonies of South America into a great confederation like the United States?
Simón Bolívar (1783-1830)
- creole elite who led the movement for independence
- inspired by George Washington
During the 1820s, independent Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador formed a republic called…?
Gran Colombia
- Bolívar attempted to bring Peru and Bolivia into the confederation
What was parliament known as in Portugal?
Cortes
How did Napoleon affect the independence movement in Portuguese Brazil?
invaded Portugal in 1807, royal court fled to Lisbon and established a government in exile in Rio de Janeiro
How did Napoleon’s invasion of Portugal influence the declaration of Brazil’s independence?
- 1821 king returned to Portugal after being in exile
- king left son Pedro in Brazil as regent
- Brazilian creoles called for independence from Portugal
- Portuguese Cortes tried to curtail Pedro’s power and he declared Brazil’s independence, accepting appointment as Emperor Pedro I (r. 1822-1834)
Although Brazil achieved independence as a __________ rather than a _________, creole elites dominated Brazilian society just as they did in former Spanish colonies.
monarchy; republic
How did creole elites still dominate Brazilian society even after they achieved independence?
- peninsulares returned to Europe, but Latin American society remained rigidly stratified as it had been in 1800
- Newly independent states granted military authority to local charismatic strongmen known as caudillos
- new states permitted continuation of slavery, confirmed wealth and authority of Roman Catholic church, and repressed the lower orders
Who were the principal beneficiaries of independence in Latin America?
the creole elites
Who were the caudillos?
local charismatic military strongmen who were granted military authority by newly independent states of Latin America, allied with creole elites
What is referred to as a coherent vision of human nature, human society, and the larger world that proposes some particular form of political and social organization as ideal?
ideology
- some seek to justify current state of affairs while others sharply criticize status quo, arguing for movement toward an improved society
What do ideologists seek to do?
design a political and social order appropriate for their communities
The modern ideology of conservatism arose as political and social theorists responded to the challenges of the ____________ and especially _______ revolutions.
American; French
How did conservatives view society?
as an organism that changed slowly over generations
Which English political philosopher held that society was a compact between a people’s ancestors, the present generation, and their descendants as yet unborn?
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
While admitting the need for gradual change that came about by general consensus, what were Edmund Burke’s views on the American and French revolutions?
American: approved, took as an example of natural change in keeping with the historical development of North American society
French: denounced as a chaotic and irresponsible assault on society
In contrast to conservatives, liberals took change as __________ and ________ it as the agent of progress.
normal; welcomed
How did liberals view conservatives’ views and efforts?
viewed conservatism as an effort to: 1. justify the status quo
2. maintain the privileges enjoyed by favored classes
3. avoid dealing with injustice and inequality in society
How did liberals view the agent of change in society?
task of political and social theory was NOT to stop change, but to manage it in the best interests of society
Liberals championed the Enlightenment values of ________ and _______, which they believed would lead to higher standards of morality and increased prosperity for the whole society.
freedom; equality
What form of government do liberals usually favor?
republican forms of government
What are republican forms of government?
citizens elect representatives to legislative bodies
- called for written constitutions that guaranteed freedom and equality for all citizens and that precisely defined the political structure and institutions in their societies
The liberalism that emerged from the Atlantic revolutions was concerned about ______ rights, less so about political and social rights.
civil
How did liberalism change its character through the 19th century/from more classical, to more democratic forms of liberalism?
early on:
- ex: held that voting was more a privilege than a right, limitations on the franchise, characterized suffrage in postrevolutionary societies
as 19th century passed:
- liberalism could not concern itself mainly with interests of the more privileged strata of society
- equality as a larger aspect of a society was emphasized beyond just equality through voting
- emphasis from minimizing role and power of government to looking to government to minimize or correct the problems that accompanied industrialization (pointing to how the government can help instead of just minimizing its authority)
Who was an English philosopher, economist, and social reformer who was the most prominent exponent of early liberalism?
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
John Stuart Mill advocated __________ _______ as the most effective way to advance individual freedom.
universal suffrage
John Stuart Mill went further than most liberals in seeking to extend the rights of freedom and equality to _________ and _________ people as well as ______ of property.
women; working; men
What did John Stuart Mill advocate for in terms of social reform?
- tried to ensure that powerful minorities (like wealthy businessmen) would not curb freedoms of poorly organized majority
- improper for majority to impose its will on minorities with different interests and values
- called for taxation of business profits and high personal incomes to forestall the organization of wealthy classes into groups that threatened individual liberties
What is suffrage?
the right or the privilege to vote
In summary, what was the product of revolution in North America?
- political independence
- broad array of individual freedoms
- legal equality of adult white men
In summary, what was the product of revolution in France?
- destroyed hierarchical social order of the ancien régime
- temporarily extended political and legal rights to all citizens
- Napoleon and later rulers curbed some of those rights
In summary, what did revolution bring to Haiti?
- independence from French rule
- end of slavery
In summary, what did revolution bring to South America?
independence from Iberian rule and societies dominated by creole elites
Social activists in Europe and the Americas turned their attention to the issues of _________ and _________ _______ while considering the further implications of the ideals of freedom and equality.
slavery; women’s rights
Who was a prominent English philanthropist who used his seat in Parliament to attack slavery on moral and religious grounds?
William Wilberforce (1759-1833)
- 1807 Parliament passed Wilberforce’s bill to end the slave trade, and many European states followed
The abolition of slavery itself was a much bigger challenge than ended the slave trade because…?
owners had property rights in their slaves
Because it wasn’t solely for humanitarian reasons, for what other reason was slavery abolished in Mexico in 1829?
served as a mechanism to stop the influx of residents from the southern United States coming in with their slaves to grow cotton
What did British Parliament do in a campaign launched by Wilberforce to abolish the institution of slavery itself?
provided twenty million pounds sterling as compensation to slave owners and abolished slavery throughout the British empire
- other states followed British example
Abolition brough legal freedom for African and African-American slaves, but it did not bring __________ ________.
political equality
- could not challenge economic and political power of creole elites
Through what experience alongside men were feminist social reformers inspired to seek equality with men?
participated alongside men in the movement to abolish slavery
Who advised that girls’ education should prepare them to become devoted wives and mothers?
Rousseau (French philosophe)
Who was a female English writer who suggested that absolute sovereignty was no more appropriate in a family than in a state by drawing on the political thought of John Locke?
Mary Astell (1666-1731)
- also reflected Enlightenment influence by asking why, if all men were born free, all women were born slaves
Who was a female British writer who published an influential essay titled “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”?
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
- argued women posessed all rights that John Locke granted to men
- insisted on the right of women to education (would enable them to be better wives and mothers, as well as contribute to society by preparing for professional occupations and participation in political life)
What crucial contributions did women make to the revolutions of the late 18th and early 19th centuries?
- sewing uniforms
- rolling bandages
- managing farms, shops, and businesses
- participated in revolutionary activities
Under what two political groups/parties of the French revolution brough increased rights for women?
- National Assembly
- the Convention
Who was an American feminist and architect of the women’s rights movement?
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902)
What conference of feminists did Elizabeth Cady Stanton organize that passed 12 resolutions calling specifically for women’s rights to vote, attend public schools, enter professional occupations, and participate in public affairs?
met at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848
The women’s rights movement experienced limited success in the ___ century.
19th
In the 19th century, the women’s rights movement was able to grant what rights to women, but was largely unsuccessful at obtaining what other rights?
after American and French revolutions, women could:
- more women able to receive formal education
- participate in academic, literary, and civic organizations
rarely in the 19th century did women
- enter such professions
- never enjoyed the right to vote
Wartime experiences encouraged peoples through Europe to think of themselves as members of distinctive ________ __________.
national communities
What does the word “nation” refer to?
a type of community that became especially prominent in the 19th century
- 19th century European peoples came to identify strongly with nations
Advocates of nationalism insisted that the ________ must be the focus of political _________.
nation; loyalty
What did an ideal national state look like (to nationalists)?
- boundaries of the national state embraced the territory occupied by the national community
- government promoted the interests of the national group
Who was an early cultural nationalist who sang the praises of the German “volk” (“people”)?
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803)
Early cultural nationalists like Johann Gottfried von Herder emphasized what to illuminate the distinctive characteristics of their societies?
- historical scholarship
- study of literature
Who were the German brothers who collected popular poetry, songs, stories, and tales as expressions of the German volk?
Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm (brothers Grimm)
Who was an Italian nationalist activist that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule, and the establishment of an Italian national state?
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)
What was the group that Giuseppe Mazzini formed to promote Italian independence and the establishment of an Italian national state?
Young Italy
How did Mazzini view Italy as a nation?
nation = family and nation’s territory = family home
The more nationalists identified with their own national communities, the more they distinguished themselves both from peoples in other lands and from _________ _______ within their societies.
minority groups
What was the political movement that held that the Jewish people constituted a nation and have right to their own national homeland?
Zionism
The Jews did not inhabit their own well-defined territory, and used nationalism as a means to tighter their bonds amongst their dispersed communities. How did nationalist leaders react to this?
became largely distrustful of minority populations, suspicion of Jews fueled anti-Semitism in many parts of Europe
In what countries was anti-Semitism barely visible, and what other European countries did it operate openly?
barely visible: France and the Netherlands
operated openly: Austria-Hungary and Germany
eastern Europe: anti-Semitism often turned violent, Russia and Poland had mass massacres of Jews
Although Anti-Semitism was not as severe in France, after what even did it flare up?
after a military court convicted Alfred Dreyfus, a jewish army officers, of spying for Germany in 1894
- he was innocent, and the charges were eventually reversed, but Dreyfus was the focus of bitter debates about the trustworthiness of Jews in French society
How was the trial of Alfred Dreyfus significant to the Zionist movement, and anti-Semitism in Europe?
- sparked bitter debates about trustworthiness of Jews in French society that had been largely unassociated with anti-Semitism
- Theodor Herzl published pamphlet that argued for the mass migration of Jews to their own land
- encouraged further Zionist efforts to establish a home for Jews
Who was a Jewish journalist from Vienna who witnessed Dreyfus’s trial and published a pamphlet that argued for the mass migration of Jews to their own homeland?
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)
What was the pamphlet that Theodor Herzl published arguing for the mass migration of Jews to their own homeland?
Judenstaat
Where did Theodor Herzl organize the first Zionist Congress, and what organization did he found?
organized first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland
- founded the World Zionist Organization
The delegates at the first Zionist Congress declared that the basic platform of the Zionist movement was what?
“Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine”
- Palestine= location of the ancient Kingdom of Israel
How did Palestinians react to the mass migration of Jews to Palestine?
Through the early 19th century, Jews trickled into Palestine, but provoked resentful nationalism among Palestinian Arabs displaced by Jewish settlers
- conflicts between Jews and Palestinians continue to present day
What was achieved by the Zionist movement in 1948?
won recognition for the Jewish state of Israel
How was the Zionist nationalist movement ironic in its cause and outcome?
cause arose as response to exclusive nationalism in Europe, but in turn provoked a resentful nationalism among Palestinian Arabs displaced by Jewish settlers
What was the marching tune/anthem that inspired pride in and identity with the national community of France?
“Marseillaise”
Fearing that heightened national consciousness and ideas of popular sovereignty would encourage further experimentation with revolution and undermine European stability, what did representatives of the “great powers” do to restore the pre revolutionary order?
met at the Congress of Vienna
Who were the “great powers” that defeated Napoleon?
Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
Who was an influential foreign minister of Austria that guided the Congress of Vienna?
Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)
What did the Congress of Vienna accomplish under the guidance of Prince Klemens von Metternich?
- dismantled Napoleon’s empire
- returned sovereignty to Europe’s royal families
- restored the thrones they had lost during the Napoleonic era
- created a diplomatic order based on a balance of power that prevented any one state from dominating the others
What was a central goal of Prince Klemens von Metternich while guiding the Congress of Vienna?
suppress national consciousness
- he viewed it as a serious threat to multicultural Austrian empire
How long did the efforts of Metternich and the Congress of Vienna last?
efforts to restore ancien regime had limited success
1. balance of power established survived for almost a century until outbreak of a general continental and global war in 1914
2. by 1815, impossible to suppress national consciousness and ideas of popular sovereignty
What was significant about the time period 1820s through the 1840s in Europe?
wave of rebellions inspired by nationalist sentiments swept through Europe
What marked the first uprising of the wave of nationalist rebellions throughout Europe in the 1820s-1840s?
Greeks seeking independence from Ottoman Turks
- with aid of Britain, France, and Russia, the rebels overcame Ottoman forces in the Balkans and by 1830 won formal recognition of Greek independence
In Belgium, Italy, and Poland, what did people call for amidst the wave of nationalist rebellions in Europe?
demanded:
- independence
- formation of national states
- popular sovereignty
What did the nationalist uprisings in Europe of 1848 result in?
- brought down the French monarchy
- seriously threatened the Austrian empire
- Prince Metternich resigned his office as Austrian foreign minister, fled Vienna and rebels took the city
- uprisings rocked cities in Italy, Prussia, and German states in the Rhineland
A variety of regional kingdoms, city-states, and ecclesiastical states ruled the Italian peninsula for more than a ____________ years, and princes divided Germany into more than _____ _______ semiautonomous jurisdictions.
thousand; three hundred
Who was a practical political leader, and prime minister to King Vittorio Emanuele II of Piedmont and Sardinia, that combined forces with nationalist advocates for independence?
Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861)
What kingdom was the most powerful of the Italian states in the mid 1800s?
kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia
From what part of Italy did Camillo di Cavour expel Austrian authorities in 1859?
from most of northern Italy
Who was a soldier of fortune and a passionate nationalist that led the unification (amongst Italy and Germany) movement, and swept government forces out of southern Italy?
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)
What arrangement did Garibaldi organize with King Vittorio Emanuele about southern Italy?
not ambitious to rule, he delivered southern Italy into Vittorio Emanuele’s hands, and the kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia became the kingdom of Italy
- over the next decade, the new monarchy absorbed additional territories including Venice, Rome, and their surrounding regions
What was the Congress of Vienna’s German Confederation?
composed of thirty-nine states dominated by Austria, used to stifle nationalist movements and suppressing rebellions, which left German nationalists frustrated at their inability to found a national state
Who was King Wilhelm I’s prime minister in 1862?
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
- he was a master of “Realpolitik” (“the politics of reality”)
What brought about the unification of Germany?
blood and iron:
- Bismarck intentionally provoked three wars with Denmark, Austria, and France
- German victories in all three wars boosted German pride
What significant event occurred in 1871 in the process of reunifying Germany?
Prussian king proclaimed himself emperor of the Second Reich (the Second Germany Empire, following the Holy Roman Empire)
- embraced all German-speaking peoples outside Austria and Switzerland in a powerful, dynamic national state
By the end of the 19th century, the ___________ state had proven to be a powerful model of political organization in Europe.
national
