chapter 29 Flashcards
the making of industrial society
What was a drawer’s job in a coal mine?
involved crawling down narrow mine shafts and hauling loads of coal from the bottom of the pit to the surface
- performed unskilled labor for low wages that was essential for the emergence of industrial production
For what three main reasons was machine production so important for industrialization?
- raised worker productivity
- encouraged economic specialization
- promoted the growth of large-scale enterprise
Who was Betty Harris?
a drawer in a coal pit near Manchester, England who was a voice against the unideal toil and work conditions of drawers and other female workers on coal mines/during the industrial era
What does the process of industrialization refer to?
A process that transformed agrarian and handicraft-centered economies into economies distinguished by industry and machine manufacture
= agrarian is in the past and machine manufacture and industry is the new thing
The need to invest in increasingly expensive _________ encouraged the formation of large _________.
equipment; businesses
Commercially sophisticated economies ran up against difficult _____________ obstacles–especially soil depletion and deforestation–.
ecological
Until the 18th century, what served as the primary source of fuel for iron production, home heating, and cooking?
Wood
What two factors about Great Britain built the promising framework for its industrialization amidst serious wood shortages?
- Europe’s largest coal deposits were in Great Britain
- Pools of skilled labor available
In the absence of easily accessible ______ _________, it was unlikely that the British economy could have supported an expanding iron production and the application of steam engines to mining and industry.
coal deposits
What was China’s most economically promising region in the 18th century?
Yangzi Delta
What are primary products?
raw materials extracted from the land or ocean
Almost ____-_______ of the proceeds from sugar exports paid for the importation of manufactured goods from Europe, including cheap cotton cloth for slaves to wear.
one-half
What three products were increasingly sent across the Atlantic to European destinations from the Americas?
grain, timber, and beef
In addition to access to coal deposits and the pool of readily available labor, what other factor contributed to Great Britain’s industrial breakthrough?
exploitation of overseas resources (slave trade, and efficient trans-Atlantic shipping provided Europe with more than enough raw materials needed to fuel their growing industries)
With what product did British industrial expansion start with?
Britain’s textiles–consumer demand encouraged a transformation of the British cotton industry
What were calicoes?
inexpensive, brightly painted textiles imported from India
What characteristics of cotton made it a more appealing material for clothing?
- lighter
- easier to wash
- quicker to dry than wool
What acts did British wool producers persuade Parliament to pass in order to protect the domestic wool industry while they were threatened by the popularity of cotton products?
the Calico Acts of 1720 and 1721
What did the Calico Acts of 1720 and 1721 do to the British cotton industry?
- prohibited imports of printed cotton cloth
- restricted the sale of calicoes at home
- passed another law requiring corpses to be buried in woolen shrouds
What Manchester mechanic invented the flying shuttle in 1733?
John Kay
What did John Kay’s flying shuttle device do?
speeded up the weaving process and stimulated demand for thread
Who built the “mule” device in 1779?
Samuel Crompton
- device adapted for steam power by 1790
- became device of choice for spinning cotton
Innovation in what part of the textile manufacturing process came first, spinning machines or thread/weaving?
spinning machines
- created an imbalance in manufacturing because weavers could not keep up with production of thread
Who was a clergyman that patented a water-driven power loom that inaugurated an era of mechanical weaving in 1785?
Edmund Cartwright
By 1830 how many people worked for Britain’s leading industry, the cotton business (it accounted for 40 percent of exports)?
half a million people
Who invented the general-purpose steam engine in 1765?
James Watt
- instrument maker at the University of Glasgow in Scotland
Steam engines burned ______ to boil water and create steam, which drove mechanical devices that performed work.
coal
James Watt’s steam engine was especially prominent in what industry in Great Britain?
textile industry
- application resulted in greater productivity for manufacturers and cheaper prices for consumers
How was James Watt’s steam engine more efficient than primitive steam engines that powered pumps that drew water out of coal mines?
relied on steam to force a piston to turn a wheel
- rotary motion converted simple pump into an engine that had multiple uses
What term did James Watt’s contemporaries use to measure the energy generated by his steam engine?
horsepower
What was coke used by British smelters as fuel to produce iron?
a purified form of coal
What were the advantages of using coke rather than charcoal?
- made it possible for producers to build bigger blast furnaces and turn out larger lots of iron
British _____ production skyrocketed during the 18th century, but the 19th century was an age of ____.
iron; steel
Who built a refined blast furnace that made it possible to produce steel cheaply and in large quantities in 1856?
Henry Bessemer, built the Bessemer converter
Who built the first steam-powered locomotive in 1815, after James Watt’s patent expired and inventors devised high-pressure engines that required less fuel?
George Stephenson
What was the downside to George Stephenson’s engines?
still burned too much coal for use at sea
_______ _____ remained the most effective means of transport over the seas until the middle of the 19th century, when refined engines of high efficiency began to drive steamships.
Sailing ships
For what main reason did steamships and railroads dramatically reduce transportation costs?
they had the capacity to carry huge cargoes
How were steamships more versatile than railroads or sailboats?
able to advance up rivers to points that sailboats could not reach because of inconvenient twists, turns, or winds
What manufacturing system was most prominent in early modern Europe, while it was still an emerging capitalist society?
putting-out system
What was the proindustrial system?
entrepreneurs in early modern Europe paid individuals to work on materials in their households to avoid guilt restrictions on prices and wages
Why did it become necessary to move work to locations where entrepreneurs and engineers built complicated machinery for large-scale production?
many of the newly developed machines were too large and expensive for home use
What did the factory system do?
Centralized production by bringing more workers doing specialized tasks together than ever before
What combination of factors provided a plentiful supply of cheap labor for factories?
- rural overpopulation
- declining job opportunities
- financial difficulties of small farmers who had to sell their land to large landowners
What form of rational organization of job functions did the factory system demand of?
division of labor!!
- each worker performed a single task, rather than a single worker who completed the entire job
Who was an Englishman with a wooden leg who owned a pottery plant and held his employees to high standards?
Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795)
With the division of labor, what did factories enable managers to do to their employees?
- impose strict work discipline
- closely supervise employees
The factory system led to emergence of an _____ ______ whose capital financed equipment and machinery that were too expensive for workers to acquire.
owner class
Under the factory system, how was the worth of industrial workers depleted? How were they viewed by their employers?
- mere wage earners who had only their labor services to offer
- who depended on their employers for their livelihood
How were workers’ skills under the factory system valued compared to their skills as artisans?
broad-range skills acquired as artisans often became obsolete in a work environment that rewarded narrowly defined skills
- repetitive and boring nature of many industrial jobs left many workers alienated or estranged from their work and the products of their labor
With factory systems instead of rural labor systems, what dictated pace of work and work routines instead of the seasons and the setting of the sun?
clocks, machines, shop rules established new rhythms of work
Describe the conditions of industrial workers during their work day in factories.
- strict and immediate supervision
- keep pace with monotonous movements of machines
- pressured to speed up production, threatened by punishment when expectations not met
- constantly faced possibility of maiming or fatal accidents without methods of work or safety taken into account
Who were the groups of English handicraft workers who went on a rampage and destroyed textile machines that they blamed for their low wages and unemployment in 1811 and 1816?
Luddites
- enjoyed considerable popular support because they avoided violence against people
- 14 Luddites hanged in 1813, and government served notice that it was unwilling to tolerate violence, even against machines
Where did the Luddite movement break out and spread?
broke out in the hosiery and lace industries around Nottingham and spread to the wool and cotton mills of Lancashire
For half a century, where did industrialization only take place in Europe? Aware of this notion, what did they do to isolate industrialization in their country only?
GREAT BRITAIN
- British entrepreneurs and government officials forbade the export of machinery, manufacturing techniques and skilled workers
By the mid-19th century, where had industrialization spread to?
France, Germany, Belgium, and the United States
How did the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars set the stage for industrialization in western Europe?
- abolishing internal trade barriers
- dismantling guilds that discouraged technological innovation and restricted the movement of laborers
Where was the earliest continental center of industrial production?
Belgium
- coal, iron, textile, glass, and armaments (weapons) production flourished
How did France begin industrializing around the 1830s?
- employed about 15,000 skilled British workers who helped establish mechanized textile and metallurgical industries in France
- French engineers and inventors devised refinements and innovations leading to greater efficiencies
Why did German industrialization proceed more slowly?
competition between many Germany states
How did Bismarck contribute to the industrialization of Germany?
- unified the state in 1871
- sponsored rapid industrialization
- encouraged the development of heavy industry and formation of huge businesses
How did American industrialization begin in the 1820s?
- labor and investment capital came largely from Europe, bankers and business people eagerly sought opportunities to invest in businesses that made use of American natural resources
- entrepreneurs lured British crafts workers to New England and built a cotton textile industry
Where did heavy iron and steel industries emerge in North America?
Pennsylvania and central Alabama
- abundant supplies of iron ore and coal
As in other lands _______ ________ in the United States spurred industrialization by providing cheap transportation and stimulating coal, iron, and steel industries.
railroad construction
What was the northeastern United States significant for and what was the southern United States significant for in the industrialization of America?
northeastern America= industrial, factories, industries
southern America= agricultural, provided raw materials for manufacture and production
Who was the inventor of the cotton gin, but also the technique of using machine tools to produce large quantities of interchangeable parts in the making of firearms (= mass production of standardized articles)?
Eli Whitney (1765-1825)
Mass production of standardized articles is the manufacturing technique of doing what?
producing large quantities of interchangeable parts
- unskilled workers made only a particular part that fit every product of the same model
Who introduced the assembly line to automobile production in 1913?
Henry Ford
What was the assembly line?
conveyor system that carried components past workers at the proper height and speed, each worker performed a special task at a fixed point on the assembly line
- subdivision of labor and coordination of operations= ENORMOUS productivity gains!!
Ford Motor Company produced how much of the world’s automobiles in the early 20th century?
half
- gains in productivity, car prices plummeted, millions of people could purchase automobiles
European entrepreneurs in early modern Europe formed ______ _________ in the hopes of profiting from market-oriented production and trade.
private businesses
In Europe’s emerging capitalist society, merchants organized in ___________ ___________, while manufacturers formed ___________.
private businesses; corporations
What is a corporation?
A concept that reached mature form in 1860s in England and France; it involved private business owned by thousands of individual and institutional investors who financed the business through the purchase of stocks.
Business firms formed __________ to restrict markets or establish monopolies in their industries to protect their investments, seeking to outperform their competitors and eliminate competition.
associations
Both trusts and cartels had the main goal of what?
to control the supply of a product and hence its price in the marketplace
Vertical organization would allow monopolists to do what?
dominate all facets of a single industry
- offered large corporations great advantages over smaller companies
Who ruled through Standard Oil Company and Trust, and controlled almost all oil drilling, processing, refining, marketing, and distribution in the United States?
John D. Rockefeller
What did horizontal organization involve?
the consolidation or cooperation of independent companies in the same business
How did cartels seek to ensure their prosperity of their members through horizontal organization?
absorbing competitors, fixing prices, regulating production, dividing up markets
Where was the Crystal Palace and why was it significant?
London; magnificent structure made of iron and glass that displayed the fruits of British industrialization and material goods
Describe some examples of industrialization raising material standards of living.
- Even desperately poor could afford several changes of clothes
- light, washable underwear came into widespread use
- decline in price of food
- homes filled with more furniture, cabinets, porcelain, and decorative objects
During the 19th century, the population of Europe increased to what from 105 million?
more than doubled to 390 million
What was demographic growth in the western hemisphere fueled by?
migration from Europe
Demographic growth was most spectacular in the __________ regions of the western hemisphere.
temperate
In temperate North America (what is now the United States), population rose from 6 million to what during the 1800s?
76 million
What disease killed more people than any other malady in world history?
smallpox
Who was the English physician who invented a vaccine for smallpox using cowpox in 1797 and laid the foundation for scientific immunology?
Edward Jenner
What two factors contributed to improved disease control and reduced child mortality?
- better diets
- improved disease control
Between 1800 and 1900 the British population increased from 10.5 million to what?
37.5 million
Between 1800 and 1900, the German population rose from 18 million to what?
43 million
What does demographic transition refer to?
shifting patterns of fertility and mortality
In the short run, _______ fell even faster than ________, so the populations of industrial societies continued to increase. Over time, declining birth rates led to lower population growth and relative demographic stability.
mortality; fertility
Why did married couples choose to have fewer offspring with industrialization?
- cost more to raise them in industrial vs agricultural societies
- declining child mortality meant that any children born were more likely to survive to adulthood
By 1900, what percent of the population in industrialized lands lived in towns with populations of 2,000 or more?
at least 50 percent
In 1800 there were barely ____ cities in Europe with populations as high as 100,000, and there were none in the western hemisphere. By 1900, there were more than _____ large cities in Europe and North America combined.
20; 150
With a population of 6.5 million, what was the largest city in the world in 1900?
London
- followed by New York 4.2 million
- Paris 3.3 million
- Berlin, 2.7 million
Until the latter part of the 19th century, urban environments remained dangerous places in which ______ rates commonly exceeded _______, and only the constant stream of new arrivals from the country kept cities growing.
death; birthrates
__________ determined the degree of comfort and security offered by city life.
Income
Why was construction of living spaces in the city so poor?
rapid influx of people migrating to expanding industrial cities encouraged quick but slipshod construction of dwellings close to mills and factories.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, about how many Europeans migrated to the western hemisphere?
50 million
- some migrants only planned on staying briefly, but many ended up staying in the Americas
What circumstances were British migrants seeking to escape by migrating to the Americas?
- dangerous facilities and squalor of early industrial cities
- Irish left because of potato famines
- Jews left Russian empire because of tsar’s antisemitism
Slaves were generally poor, so they did not consume the products of industrial manufacturers in large quantities, but industrialists preferred ____ ______ _________, who spent their money on products that kept their factories busy.
free wage laborers
- in this way industrialization encouraged the disappearance of slavery in lands undergoing industrialization
What social class was a principal beneficiary of industrialization? What did this class consist of?
MIDDLE CLASS: small business owners, factory managers, engineers, accountants, skilled employees of large corporations, and professionals such as teachers, physicians, and attorneys
Who constituted a new working class?
masses of laborers who toiled in factories and mines, less skilled than the artisans and crafts workers of earlier times
- tended to machines or provided heavy labor for low wages
What two centers/industries were the working class concentrated in?
mining and industrial centers
During the age of industrialization, family members began leading increasingly _________ lives.
separate
How did men begin to see their value in industrial society? How did their family roles change?
internalized the work ethic of the industrial age, industrial work seemed far more important than the domestic chores traditionally carried out by women
- gained increased stature or responsibility as they dominated public life, becoming managers of factories and wageworkers
What did society expect women to do instead of engaging in labor in the late 19th century?
encouraged women to devote themselves to traditional pursuits:
- raising of children
- management of the home
- preservation of traditional family values
What was expected of working class women?
work at least until marriage, and often after marriage, usually to compensate for their husbands’ insufficient wages
- working class women unable to support themselves because they earned less money than men
During the early stages of industrialization, early manufacturers employed who in greater numbers?
employed women in greater numbers than men
- inventors and manufacturers believed that women were best suited to operate new machines with their small hands and fingers that gave them superior dexterity
Most working-class women (after being eliminated from their jobs in the industrial workforce) found employment in __________ ________.
domestic service
High demand for _______ ensured that women could switch jobs readily in search of more attractive positions.
servants
Describe the “model woman” in the age of industrialization.
“The model woman ‘knows that she is the weaker vessel’ and takes pride in her ability to make the home a happy place for her husband and children”
Why was child labor especially pitiable and exploitive?
they were already taken away from home with their parents for long hours with few breaks, so it made sense of force children to work from dawn until dusk.
- many families needed their children’s labor to survive
Motivated by moral concerns and by the recognition that modern society demanded a highly skilled and educated labor force, what did the government establish about the task of childhood?
Governments established the legal requirement that education, and not work for monetary gain, was the principal task of childhood.
____________ settings continued to demand that children make a contribution to the family income, _______ industrial societies redefined the role of children.
agricultural; urban
When did education for children age five to ten become mandatory in England?
1881
Early socialists sought to expand the Enlightenment understanding of what virtue?
equality
- they understood equality to have an economic as well as political, legal, and social dimension
- looked to the future establishment of a just and equitable society
What two social critics and their followers were known as the utopian socialists?
Charles Fourier (1722-1837) and Robert Owen (1771-1858).
What were the characteristics of Charles Fourier’s model/equitable society?
- communities held together by love rather than coercion
- everyone performed work in accordance with personal temperament and inclination
What did Robert Owen transform a squalid Scottish cotton mill town (NEW LANARK) Into?
model industrial community:
1. raised wages
2. reduced workday from 17 to 10 hours
3. built spacious housing
4. opened a store that sold goods at fair prices
5. kept young children out of factories and sent them to a school he opened in 1816
By the mid-19th century, most socialists looked not to utopian communities but to what in order to bring about a just and equitable society?
large-scale organization of working people
What two classes did German theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believe society was split into?
- Capitalists: who owned industrial machinery and factories
- Proletariat: wageworkers who had only their labor to sell
What institutions did Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believe were agencies of the capitalist ruling class (served/benefitted the purposes of capitalists)
police forces, courts of law, the state and its coercive institutions
- function was to maintain capitalists in power and enable them to continue their exploitation of the proletariat
In what spirited tract did Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels align themselves with the communists, and assert that all human history has been the history of struggle between social classes?
“Manifesto of the Communist Party” (1848)
- argued that the future lay with the working class because the laws of history dictated that capitalism would inexorably grind to a halt
What did the communists work toward?
the abolition of private property and the institution of a radically egalitarian society
What did Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believe would come along with the socialist revolution?
“dictatorship of the proletariat”:
- abolish private property
- destroy capitalist order
- state would wither away
- coercive institutions would disappear
How did the socialist cause advance? What prevented it from advancing further?
political parties, trade unions, newspapers, and educational associations all worked to advance the socialist cause
- urged workers to seize control of the state, confiscate the means of production, and distribute wealth equitably throughout society
but socialists disagreed strongly on the best means to reform society
- placed hopes in representative governments and called for election of legislators who supported socialist reforms
With the social reform, the 1830s and 1840s saw the inception of laws that regulated what?
women’s working hours, while leaving men without protection and constraints
- protect women’s family roles, but reduce women’s economic opportunities
Beginning in the 19th century, how did European countries, led by Germany, adopt social reform programs?
retirement pensions, minimum wage laws, sickness, accident, unemployment insurance, regulation of hours and conditions of work
How did trade unions seek to eliminate the abuses of early industrial society and improve their workers’ lives?
seeking higher wages and better conditions for their members
- did not seek to destroy capitalism, but rather to make employers more responsive to their employees’ needs and interests
Industrialization brought great economic and military strength to societies that reconfigured themselves and relied on __________ production.
mechanized
What two factors contributed to the increasing demand of products like sugar, spices, tobacco, tea, coffee, cotton, and eventually textiles, belts, and tires (rubber)?
- population growth
- mechanization and new industrial technologies
Especially in lands settled by European colonists like Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, specialization in what paved the way for economic development and eventual industrialization?
experienced economic growth through
1. the export of primary products (raw materials)
2. infusion of foreign capital and labor
What advantage did lands settled by European colonists have that allowed for great economic growth?
HIGH-WAGE ECONOMIES!!
- high incomes fostered economic development by:
1. creating flourishing markets
2. encouraging entrepreneurs to counteract high wages and labor scarcity by inventing labor-saving technologies
How were the lands of Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia, and southeast Asia less fortunate in terms of industrialization and economic growth?
- exported primary products but attracted little foreign investment
- developed little mechanical industry
- very export-oriented agriculture, so domestic economies are deprived of funds that might otherwise have contributed to the building of markets and industries
- low wages of plantation workers
What was the result of less fortunate lands like Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia, and southeast Asia’s disproportionate flow of wealth?
wealth was concentrated in the hands of small groups that contributed little to economic development through consumption or investment
- dominant financial interests adopted free-trade policies allowing unrestricted entry of foreign manufactures = more opportunities for foreign lands, but limited opportunities for indigenous industrialization
The new geographic division of labor (some of the world’s peoples provided raw materials, while others processed and consumed them) increased trade and transportation, but largely benefitted what three main lands?
Europe, North America, Japan
- other lands realized few benefits from the process of industrialization
