chapter 22 Flashcards
transoceanic encounters and global connections
From where did Vasco de Gama’s fleet depart for their voyage in 1497?
From (Lisbon) Portugal to Cape Verde Islands off west coast of Africa, sailing for 95 days through open ocean before rounding the Cape of Good Hope, and entering the Indian Ocean
When did Vasco de Gama and his fleet return to Portugal?
August 1499
What were some of the Europeans’ most important motives for exploring the world’s oceans?
- Search for basic resources
- Search for lands suitable for cultivation of cash crops
- Desire to establish new trade routes to Asian markets
- Aspiration to expand influence of Christianity
Who was most prominent in search for fresh resources to exploit and lands to cultivate?
the Portuguese
What islands did the Portuguese discover (archipelagoes in the Atlantic Ocean)?
Azores and Madeiras Islands
What indigenous peoples inhabited the Canary Islands?
Guanche people
How did travel on the Silk Roads become less safe?
Collapse of Mongol empire and spread of bubonic plague
Where did Muslim mariners bring Asian goods through the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea to?
Cairo, where Italian merchants purchased them for distribution throughout western Europe
What commodity from Asia did Europeans especially demand?
Spices (Indian pepper and Chinese ginger were regarded as expensive necessities, also prized cloves and nutmeg)
What goods beckoned Europeans to Africa?
Gold (especially important as it was Europeans’ principle form of payment for Asian luxury goods), ivory, slaves
Who was known for promoting voyages of exploration in west Africa to enter gold trade, discover profitable trade routes, win converts to Christianity, and make alliances against the Muslims with any Christian rulers?
Prince Henry the Navigator
Beginning in the 12th century, how did Europeans increase the maneuverability of their ships?
Building a rudder onto the stern
What was the benefit of using square sails?
Enabled sailors to take full advantage of a following wind/wind blowing from behind
What was the benefit of triangular lateen sails?
Took advantage of crosswinds, catching winds from the side and/or behind
Who invented the compass?
It was a Chinese invention of the Tang or Song dynasty that had diffused throughout the Indian Ocean basin in the 11th century
What did the astrolabe do?
It determined altitude by measuring the angle of the sun or the pole star above the horizon
Aside from sailors, who used the astrolabe?
Greek and Persian astronomers
Who constructed cross staffs and back staffs?
The Portuguese, which was modeled off of simplified Arab instruments for determining latitude
What and where are the “wind wheels”?
Both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, strong winds blowing regularly both north and south of the equator
Between what degrees of latitude do trade winds blow from the east?
Between about five and twenty-five degrees of latitude north and south of the equator
Between what degrees of latitude do westerly winds prevail?
thirty and sixty degrees north and south
During the summer months between April and October, what direction do monsoon winds blow?
From southwest throughout Indian Ocean basin
During the winter months, which direction do monsoon winds blow?
From the northeast
Who invented a strategy called the “volta do mar”?
Portuguese mariners
What does “volta do mar” translate to?
“return through the sea”
What did the “volta do mar” teach?
sailing around contrary winds was much more faster, safer, and reliable than butting up against them
Who did exploratory voyaging begin with in the thirteenth century?
In 1291 the Vivaldi brothers departed from Genoa in two ships with the intention of sailing around Africa to India
Where were the Guanche people originally from?
Morocco
Who conquered the Canaries and made it an outpost for further exploration?
Castilian forces
Who conquered the Moroccan port of Ceuta and sponsored a series of voyages down the west African coast?
Prince Henry of Portugal
What was one of the more important Portuguese trading posts constructed along the west African coast?
Sao Jorge da Mina
Describe Bartolomeu Dias’s voyage.
He rounded the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean, but didn’t proceed further because of storms and a restless crew.
When did Bartolomeu Dias’s voyage take place?
1488
Describe Vasco de Gama’s voyage.
Departed Lisbon, Portugal in 1497 with four armed merchant ships, went more than three months without seeing land, difficult journey and less than half of his crew returned to Portugal safely. Cargo of pepper and cinnamon was hugely profitable, and prompted further Portuguese expeditions.
What is Christopher Columbus’s actual name?
Cristoforo Colombo
Who financed Columbus’ voyage?
Fernando and Isabel of Spain eventually agreed to sponsor his expedition, but Italian bankers actually financed his voyage
When did Columbus’s fleet of three ships depart Palos in southern Spain?
August 1492
Who were the native inhabitants where Christopher Columbus made landfall?
the Taino
Where did Christopher Columbus think he arrived when he landed in the Bahamas?
The spice islands known as the Indies, and thus he called the native Taino “Indians”
How many additional voyages did Christopher Columbus make across the Atlantic?
Three
Why were Columbus’ voyages significant?
- Inspired French, Spanish, English, and Dutch mariners to follow in his wake, to continue seeking a path to Asian waters
- Established links between eastern and western hemispheres, paving the way for conquest, settlement, and exploitation of the Americas by European peoples
Who sighted the Pacific Ocean in 1513 while searching for gold in Panama?
Vasco Nunez de Balboa
How much of earth’s surface does the Pacific Ocean cover?
one third
Who was Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)?
Portuguese navigator who believed that spice islands and Asian markets lay close to the western coast of the Americas, made Pacific expedition in the service of Spain to complete the first circumnavigation of the world.
When did Ferdinand Magellan leave Spain?
September 1519
Where did Ferdinand Magellan eventually find a strait leading to the Pacific?
Near the southern tip of South America
After exiting the straight through South America to the Pacific, how Long did Magellan’s fleet sail before taking on fresh provisions at Guam?
Four months
Of Magellan’s five ships and 280 men, how many ships and men survived returned to Spain?
One spice-laden ship, 18 of original crew members
For whom was Magellan’s expedition beneficial towards?
Spanish merchants built on information from Magellan’s expedition and established a trade route between the Philippines and Mexico
What Norwegian explorer traveled from the Atlantic to the Pacific by way of the northwest passage?
Roald Amundsen
In searching for what were Europeans able to expand their knowledge of the Pacific Ocean’s geography?
a northwest passage from Europe to Asia
In the sixteenth century, who scouted the west coast of North America as far north as Vancouver?
Sir Francis Drake
Russian officials commissioned who to undertake two maritime expeditions to search for a northeast passage to Asian ports?
Dutch navigator, Vitus Bering
Why were Captain James Cook’s expeditions so important to furthering European maritime explorations?
He charted eastern Australia and New Zealand, added New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Hawaii to European maps of the Pacific, allowed European geographers to compile a more accurate understanding of the world’s oceans.
_______ mariners built the earliest trading-post empire
Portuguese
By the mid-sixteenth century, Portuguese merchants had built more than______ trading posts between west Africa and east Asia.
50
At Sao Jorge de Mina, what did Portuguese mariners trade?
west African slaves
What did Portuguese mariners do at their trading post in Mozambique?
Attempted to control African gold trade
From Hormuz, Portuguese mariners controlled access to the Persian Gulf, and from Goa they organized trade in______ _______.
Indian pepper
At Melaka, Portuguese merchants oversaw shipping between the _______ ________ Sea and the _______ Ocean.
South China; Indian
Who was the architect of aggressive Portuguese policy that involved ships quipped with heavy artillery?
Alfonso d’Alboquerque
How did Alfonso d’Alborquerque seek to control Indian Ocean trade?
By forcing merchant ships to purchase safe-conduct passes and present them at Portuguese trading posts–ships without passes were subject to confiscation.
How did Portuguese influence in the India Ocean eventually weaken?
Unable to sustain large seaborne trading empire, not large enough to a population and other investors in other lands began organizing their own expedition into Asian markets
Which trading post remained the official capital of Portuguese colonies in Asia until Indian forces reclaimed it in 1961?
Goa
Where did the English concentrate their trading posts in the Indian Ocean?
In India, building trading posts at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta
Where did the Dutch concentrate their trading posts in the Indian Ocean?
Cape Town, Colombo, and Batavia
What were the two main advantages that the English and the Dutch had over their Portuguese predecessors?
- They sailed faster, cheaper, and more powerful ships
- They conducted trade through an efficient form of commercial organization= joint-stock company (allowed investors to realize handsome profits while limiting the risk to their investments)
What was the name of the English’s especially powerful joint-stock company?
the English East India Company, founded in 1600
What was the name of the Dutch’s especially powerful joint-stock company?
the United East Indian Company, better known as VOC (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie), established in 1602
_____ ________ advanced funds to launch these companies, outfit them with ships and crews, and provide them with commodities and money to trade.
Private merchants
Unhampered by _________ _________, company agents concentrated strictly on profitable trade.
political oversight
_________ ______ _______ enabled Europeans to bring considerable force to bear and to establish imperial regimes that favored the interests of European merchants.
heavily armed ships
Who were Spanish forces under the command of when they approached the Philippines in 1565?
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
Whom were the Philippines named after?
King Philip II of Spain
Why were the Philippines so easily conquered by the Spanish?
They had no central government, no organized resistance to their intrusion
Spanish policy in the Philippines revolved around _____ and _________.
Trade; Christianity
What port city emerged as a bustling multicultural port city, and became the hub of Spanish commercial activity in Asia (where Chinese merchants were especially prominent).
Manila
How did Spanish rulers and missionaries pressure Filipinos to convert to Christianity?
Opened schools to teach fundamentals of Christian doctrine
What was the main way that Dutch mariners differed from the Spanish, in controlling Java?
- Didn’t worry about seeking converts to Christianity
- Concentrated on controlling trade in spices
- Sought less to rule than to control production of spices
- Used force to attack peoples who sold their spices to merchants not associated with the VOC
What were the larger effects of Spanish rule over the Philippines and of Dutch rule over Java?
The Philippines became one of the most fervent Roman Catholic lands in the world and the Netherlands became the most prosperous land in Europe throughout most of the 17th century from controlling spice trade in the Indian Ocean
What was the terrain like in Siberia?
frozen tundras and dense forests
Why did Russian explorers make their way into Siberia?
In search for fur, a lucrative commodity that lured Russians eastward
Russian expansion in northeastern Eurasia began in 1581 when the wealthy ________ ______ hired a freebooting adventurer named Yermak to capture khanate of Sibir
Stroganov family
How did Russians treat the native indigenous peoples of Siberia upon their arrival?
Some readily accepted the commodities bestowed upon them while others firmly resisted Russian encroachment on their lands and demand of tribute, to which Russians punished by taking hostages and punishing raids.
What did the Russian government refer to the indigenous peoples as?
“small peoples”
Government-sponsored missionaries sought to convert Siberian peoples to__________ ___________, but they had little success.
Orthodox Christianity
What is another name for the Seven Years’ War?
“the great war for empire”
How was the Seven Years’ War significant?
Laid the foundation for 150 years of British imperial hegemony in the world, and demonstrated how interconnected peoples of the world had become from earlier global exchanges.
In what distinct geographic theaters did the Seven Years’ War take place?
Europe, India, the Caribbean, and North America (also involved Asian and indigenous American peoples)
In Europe, the Seven Years’ War sparked conflicts between what states?
Britain and Prussia against France, Austria, and Russia
In India, what forces allied with local rulers and engaged in a contest for hegemony in the Indian Ocean?
British and French forces
What conflicts emerged in the Caribbean during the Seven Years’ War?
Spanish forces joined with French to limit British expansion into western hemisphere
Where did the Seven Years’ War merge with a conflict already under way known as the French and Indian War?
North America
What happened in North America during the Seven Years’ War?
British and French armies made separate alliances with indigenous peoples to outmaneuver each other
Who won the Seven Years’ War?
British forces
