chapter 30 Flashcards
the americas in the age of independence
Expeditions in 1804 and 1806 led by what two explorers expanded peoples’ knowledge of lands to the west, and encouraged settlement beyond the Mississippi River?
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark
The Declaration of Independence had declared that “all men are created equal”, but for many years the vote was limited to men of property. By the late 1820s, what changed about the criteria for an individuals’ right to vote?
most property qualifications had disappeared, almost all adult white men were eligible to participate in the political affairs of the republic
What was the idea of manifest destiny?
the United States was destined, even divinely ordained, to expand across the North American continent from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific and beyond
- idea was often invoked to justify U.S. annexations
How did the United States double in size in 1803 with Napoleon Bonaparte?
Napoleon needed funds to protect revolutionary France from its enemies, he allowed the United States to purchase France’s Louisiana Territory, which extended from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains
What did the Indian Removal Act of 1830 do to Native American tribes?
United States government determined to move all native Americans west of the Mississippi River into “Indian Territory” (Oklahoma)
What was the Trail of Tears?
a harrowing 800 mile migration from the eastern woodlands to Oklahoma (at least in the case of the Cherokee) where thousands died from disease, starvation, and the difficulties of relocation
In what battle did Native American tribes (Lakota Sioux and their allies) especially demonstrate their effective resistance to encroachment by white settlers in 1876?
Battle of the Little Bighorn (in southern Montana)
What happened in 1890 at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota?
Sioux man accidentally shot off a gun, and the U.S. cavalry (who had been chasing them to suppress their religious ceremonies of ghost dancing) overreacted, slaughtered more than two hundred men, women, and children with machine guns
When did Texas declare independence from Mexico?
1836
- in 1845, the U.S. accepted Texas as a new state against Mexican protest
Who instigated and won the Mexican-American War (1846-1848)?
U.S. forces instigated the war, and inflicted defeat on the Mexican army
- this was all in efforts for the U.S. to consolidate its hold on the territory of Texas, when adopting it as a new state
Under what treaty did the United States take possession of approximately one-half of Mexico’s territory, paying 15 million dollars in exchange for Texas north of the Rio Grande, California, and New Mexico?
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
What two factors contributed to the reinvigoration of the slave system in the United States/demand for what cash crop increased in the early 19th century?
- cotton rose as a cash crop in the early 19th century
- westward expansion prompted exploitation of more land
- U.S. slave population rose sharply, from 500,000 in 1770 to almost 2 million in 1820
Beginning with what political compact, did government authorities attempt to maintain a balance between slave and free states as the republic admitted new states carved out of western territories?
the Missouri Compromise of 1820
What event ignited war between the states in 1860?
the election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency
- he was an explicitly sectional candidate that was convinced that slavery was immoral, and was committed to territories without slavery
What could’ve been the two goals of the American civil war?
- abolition of slavery
- restoration of the Union (what President Lincoln had insisted from the beginning of the war was his primary aim)
For what reasons did Abraham Lincoln not adopt an abolitionist policy?
- he was elected on a platform of noninterference with slavery within the states (people elected him because he pledged to remain neutral on such an issue?)
- doubted the constitutionality of any federal action (doubted he could control the states’ authority)
- concerned about the difficulties of assimilating slaves into the nation’s social and political fabric
- feared it would induce border states to join Confederacy and upset the loyalty of the four slave states that remained in the Union
What were the four slave states that remained in the Union?
Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri
What three other central issues did the American Civil War revolve around?
- states’ rights vs federal government authority
- nature of the Union
- budding industrial-capitalist system vs export-oriented plantation economy
How many southern states withdrew from the Union in 1860 and 1861, affirming their right to dissolve the Union and their support for states’ rights?
11
By the mid-19th century, what region of the United States was the world’s major source of cotton (most of which went to the British isles)?
southern states
How did southerners view their secession from the Union? How did northerners view the southerners’ secession?
- southerners considered themselves self-sufficient and believed that they did not need the rest of the United States
- northerners viewed secession as illegal, and act of betrayal
While the first two years of the American Civil War ended in stalemate, the tides of the war turned when Abraham Lincoln signed what document?
the Emancipation Proclamation
- made the abolition of slavery an explicit goal of the war
- Lincoln increasingly viewed abolition of slavery as the only way to preserve the Union
Where did the Union take their victory in the American Civil War?
Antietam
The final version of the Emancipation Proclamation (issued January 1, 1863) did what to slaves?
freed the slaves in those states that had rebelled
- ironically, slavery remained protected by the U.S. Constitution in the states that remained loyal to the Union
How did Lincoln attempt to eliminate the risk of re-enslavement after the war?
Urged the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution (ratified in 1865)
- completely abolished slavery throughout the United States
Out of the approximate 1,556,000 soldiers that served Union armies, how many died? Out of the approximate 800,000 men who served in Confederate forces, how many died in the Civil War?
360,000 and 258,000
How long did the American Civil War last?
four years, (1861-1865)
Why was the battle at Gettysburg in July 1863 significant?
turned the military tide against southern forces, allowing northern states to prevail in the Civil War
What did the victory of the northern states in the Civil War ensure for the United States?
- ended slavery in the United States
- ensured that the United States would remain politically united
- enhanced authority of the federal government in the republic
Fears of what submerged the ethnic differences between Canada’s separate ethnic groups (British Canadians and French Canadians)?
fears of U.S. expansion and concerns about the possibility of an invasion from the south
The colony of New France passed into the British empire after the British victory in what war?
the Seven Years’ War
Until the late 18th century, ______ Canadians outnumbered _______ Canadians, so imperial officials made large concessions to their subjects of French descent to forestall military strife.
French; British
In areas of French Canadian settlement, what religion was observed, and how was territory governed?
- recognized the Roman Catholic Church, and permitted continued observance of French civil law in Quebec and other areas
- governed through appointed councils staffed by local elites
In areas of British Canadian settlement, what religious was observed and how was territory governed?
- British Canadians were Protestants who lived mostly in Ontario
- followed British law
- governed themselves through elected representatives
Through what war did anti-U.S. sentiments become a means for covering over differences among French and British Canadians?
the War of 1812
What happened during the War of 1812, that fueled anti-U.S. sentiments amongst Canadians?
Canadian forces repelled U.S. incursions in attempt to invade and conquer Canada (the U.S. greatly undermined Canadian forces, thinking they would be easily overcome)
- their victories promoted sense of Canadian pride, and united Canadians against the U.S.
Why did the discontent amongst British and French Canadians reach a critical point in the 1830s?
Following the War of 1812, English-speaking migrants swelled Canadian population, but threatened the identity of Quebec
How did the British imperial governors of Canada defuse tensions amongst British and French Canadians following the War of 1812 that brought an influx of English-speaking migrants?
expanding home rule in Canada!!
- permitted the provinces to govern their own internal affairs
What document inspired the imperial move toward Canadian autonomy?
the Durham Report, issued in 1839 by John George Langton (1782-1840)
Who was John George Langton?
issued the Durham Report
- first earl of Durham and recent governor-general and lord high commissioner of Canada (what the heck is that title)
What did John George Langton advocate for in the Durham Report?
self-government for a united Canada
- model for British imperial policy and colonial self-rule in other states including Australia and New Zealand
What act joined Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick and recognized them as the Dominion of Canada?
The British North America Act of 1867
Without waging war, the _________ of Canada had won control over all Canadian internal affairs, and Britain retained jurisdiction over foreign affairs until 1931.
Dominion
Who was the first prime minister of Canada?
John A. Macdonald (1815-1891)
How did John A. Macdonald (the first prime minister of Canada) help strengthen Canada as a union?
- negotiated the purchase of the huge Northwest Terrtiories from the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1869
- persuaded Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island to join the Dominion
- oversaw construction of a transcontinental railroad (completed in 1885)
- helped bring new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and Newfoundland into the Dominion
Who was hailed as South America’s liberator?
Simón Bolívar
- wars of independence that he led encouraged a sense of solidarity in Latin America
- after the defeat of the common colonial enemy, solidarity was impossible to sustain
What three constituent parts did Simón Bolívar’s Gran Colombia break into?
Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador
- the rest of Latin America fragmented into numerous independent states
Why were constitutions more difficult to frame in Latin America than in the United States?
Latin American leaders had less experience with self-government, Spanish and Portuguese colonial regimes were far more autocratic than was the British imperial government in North America
______ ______ dominated the newly independent states of Latin America, and effectively prevented mass participation in public affairs.
creole elites
- millions of indigenous peoples lived entirely outside the political system, left little choice beyond rebellion
What was the one thing that creole elites agreed on?
the policy of claiming American land for agriculture and ranching
- pushing aside indigenous peoples and established Euro-American hegemony in Latin America
Where was conflict most intense in Latin America when it came to establishing a Euro-American hegemony (pushing indigenous peoples out)?
Argentina and Chile
Who were the caudillos?
regional military leaders
After independence in Latin America, military leaders took to the political stage, appealing to populist sentiments and exploiting the _______ of the masses.
discontent
Although caudillo rule often ______ freedom and undermined _______ ideals, it sometimes also gave rise to an opposition that aimed to overthrow the caudillos and work for liberal reforms that would promote democratic forms of government.
limited; republican
- essentially, the controlling and consolidating of power done by the caudillos encouraged opposition and reform in Latin American society amidst the limited freedom experienced under caudillo control
Who was a notable caudillo who from 1829 to 1852 ruled an Argentina badly divided between the cattle-herding and gaucho society of the pampas (interior grasslands) and the urban elite of Buenos Aires?
Juan Manuel de Rosas
How did Juan Manuel de Rosas wield terror as a weapon to restore order in Argentina?
- quelled rebellions in a bloody fashion
- known for violently killing his victims - called for regional autonomy in an attempt to reconcile competing interests
- worked to centralize his government
- ruled with absolute power through his own personal army
What did the liberal reform movement (La Reforma) led by President Benito Juárez aim to do?
limit the power of the military and the Roman Catholic church in Mexican society
What were the ideals of La Reforma set forth in the Constitution of 1857?
- curtailed the privilege of priests and military elites
- guaranteed universal male suffrage and other civil liberties such as freedom of speech
What did Juárez do to lessen Mexico’s financial stresses, but only led to French, British, and Spanish, intervention as Europeans sought to recover and protect their investments in Mexico?
he chose to suspend loan payments to foreign powers
Who/which European power was especially persistent and intrusive when it came to intervening in Mexican affairs to end Mexican disorder by re-creating a monarchy?
France’s Napoleon III
The Mexican revolution (1910-1920) broke out when what happened?
middle-class Mexicans joined with peasants and workers to overthrow the powerful dictator Porfirio Diáz (1830-1915)
What was the first major, violent effort in Latin America to attempt to topple the grossly unequal system of landed estates (fully 95% of all peasants remained landless)?
the revolt in Mexico
Who were Mexican revolutionary leaders that were charismatic agrarian rebels who organized massive armies fighting for land and liberty?
Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919) and Francisco (Pancho) Villa (1878-1923)
How did Emiliano Zapata challenge governmental political control?
confiscated hacienda lands and began distributing the lands to the peasants
How did Francisco Villa challenge governmental political control?
attacked and killed U.S. citizens in retaliation for U.S. support of Mexican government officials
Despite the power and popularity enjoyed by Zapata and Villa, they were _____ to capture Mexico’s major cities, and they ___ ___ command the resources and wealth to which government forces had access.
unable; did not
Although radicals such as Zapata and Villa were ultimately defeated, the Mexican Constitution of 1917 had already addressed some of the concerns of the revolutionaries by providing for what?
land redistribution, universal suffrage, state-supported education, minimum wages and maximum hours for workers, and restrictions on foreign ownership of Mexican property and mineral resources
In the form of division, rebellion, caudillo rule, and civil war, ______ and ______ plagued Latin America throughout the 19th century.
instability; conflict
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, what two principal influences shaped economic development throughout the Americas?
- mass migration
- British investment
What was one of the main attractions that drew prospectors hoping to make a quick fortune to the U.S. and Canada?
Gold discoveries
- California gold rush of 1849
- Canadian gold lured migrants by the tens of thousands
Outnumbering gold prospectors were millions of ______ and _____ migrants who made their way to the factories, railroad construction sites, and plantations of the Americas.
European; Asian
By keeping labor costs ____, migrants helped _____ the profitability and fuel the expansion of U.S. industry.
down; increase
In the 1850s, European migrants to the United States numbered how many?
2.3 million
By the late 19th century, where were most European migrants to the U.S. coming from?
southern and eastern Europe
(Poles, Russians, Jews, Slavs, Italians, Greeks, and the Portuguese), settled largely in the industrial cities of the eastern states
Chinese migration to the U.S. grew rapidly after what period when British gunboats opened China to foreign influences?
1840s
- officials of the Qing government permitted foreigners to seek indentured laborers in China and approved their migration to distant lands
Between 1852 and 1875, about how many Chinese migrated to California?
200,000
What did most Chinese migrants travel to the U.S. on/what was to be their jobs/future in the U.S.?
most traveled on indentured labor contracts that required them to cultivate crops or work on the Central Pacific Railroad
Whereas migrants to the United States contributed to the development of an _______ society, migrants to Latin American lands mostly worked on _______ ________.
industrial; agricultural plantations
Who were the golondrinas (“swallows”)?
migrants who traveled back and forth annually between Europe and South America to take advantage of different growing seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres
About how many Italians sought opportunities in Argentina in the 1880s and 1890s?
4 million
More than _______ indentured laborers from China worked in the sugarcane fields of Cuba during the 19th century.
15,000
Indian migrants traveled to what South American lands?
Jamaica, Trinidad, Tobago, and Guyana
About ____ Chinese went to Hawaii during the 1850s and 1860s, and later _____ Japanese also made their way to island plantations.
5,000;180,000
How was British investment capital in the United States used to spur a vast expansion of U.S. industry?
helping businesspeople establish a textile industry and funding entrepreneurs!!
- who opened coal and iron ore mines, built iron and steel factories, and constructed railroad lines
- tapped American resources and built a continental economy
Before the Civil War, how many miles of railroad lines did the United States have? By 1900, what was this number?
about 31,000 miles and then more than 200,000 miles
When was the transcontinental route completed and what were its start/end points?
completed in 1869, ran from Omaha to San Francisco
Railroads in the U.S. provided cheap transportation for what three main things?
- agricultural commodities
- manufactured goods
- individual travelers
What other industries did railroads spur the development of as a result of its construction?
coal, wood, glass, and rubber
By the 1880s, what percent of U.S. steel went to the railroad industry?
75%
In addition to providing cheap transportation and spurring the development of other industries like coal and glass, what else did railroads encourage managers to adopt?
required the development of new managerial skills to operate large, complicated businesses, called for organization and coordination at an unprecedented scale
What environmental impacts did railroads have on the landscape?
- altered the landscape in extreme fashion, broadscale land clearing and expelling indigenous settlers
- environmental damage through soil erosion and pollution (dark smoke emanating from railroad engines)
Before railroads shaped the sense of time in the U.S., what did people rely on to set their clocks?
the sun
- local sun times created scheduling nightmares for railroad managers – had to keep track of more than 50 time zones
To simplify matters of scheduling train transportation, what did railroad companies do to the North American continent in 1883?
created railroad time!!: divided it into 4 zones in which all railroad clocks read precisely the same time
- 1918, U.S. government officially established the four time zones as the nation’s official framework of time
Did the march of U.S. industrialization go entirely unopposed? Who and how did they rebel?
NO; large-scale labor unions emerged alongside big business between 1870 and 1900
- confrontations between business owners seeking profits and workers seeking higher wages or job security sometimes grew ugly
How did the Canadians enjoy a high standard of living even before industrialization/how did they take advantage of British investment capital to industrialize, without allowing their economy to fall under British control?
early 19th century, Britain paid relatively high prices for Canadian agricultural products and minerals, partly to
1. keep the colony stable and
2. discourage formation of separatist movements = Canadians enjoyed high standard of living
What was the idea behind the National Policy of Canada’s Dominion?
program of economic development!!:
to attract migrants, protect sprouting industries through tariffs, and build national transportation systems
What was the name of Canada’s transcontinental railroad that stimulated the development of other industries and promoted the emergence of a Canadian national economy?
Canadian Pacific Railroad
- completed in 1885
Between 1903 and 1914, about how many eastern European migrants settled in Canada?
2.7 million
By 1918, the U.S. presence in the Canadian economy grew, and they owned ______ of all Canadian industry.
30 percent
How was foreign investment and trade more damaging to Latin America?
Colonies opened to European trade in order to fulfill their demanded quantities of manufactured goods that Spain and Portugal couldn’t provide
- this snuffed out local industries that couldn’t compete with European producers of inexpensive manufactured goods
- Latin American elites profited handsomely from European trade and investment, didn’t have incentives toward economic diversification
Why did British merchants have little desire to transform Latin American states into dependent trading partners?
they offered no substantial market for British goods
Under the rule of Porfirio Díaz, what did industrialization in Mexico look like?
- railroad tracks and telegraph lines connected all parts of Mexico
- production of mineral resources surged
- small steel industry produced railroad track and construction materials
- entrepreneurs established glass, chemical, and textile industries
- Mexico City underwent transformation
Despite Mexican industries booming under Porfirio Díaz’s rule, what led to sudden outbreak of violent revolution in 1910?
profits from Mexican enterprises went to Mexican oligarchy and foreign investors who supported Díaz, growing and discontented urban working class seethed with resentment at low wages, long hours, and foreign managers
- standard of living for average Mexicans had begun to decline by the early 20th century
Who described the United States as “not merely a nation but a teeming nation of nations”?
Walt Whitman
What was one of the ways that the U.S. government and private citizens acted to undermine or destroy the bases of native cultural traditions?
white migrants, railroad employees, hunters, and “wild west” men shot and killed hundreds of thousands of bison (whom native tribes largely centered their material cultures) effectively exterminating the buffalo and the economy of the Plains Indians
What did the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 do to tribal reservations?
shifted land policies away from collective tribal reservations and toward individual tracts of land meant to promote the family farms once common in white U.S. society and now becoming increasingly less competitive
What was two of the main white-controlled boarding schools that government officials established to eliminate tribal influences and inculcate Christian and U.S. values in native children?
the Carlisle Indian School and the Toledo Indian School
In an effort to establish a place for freed slaves in American society, northern forces sent armies of occupation to the southern states and forced them to undergo a program social and political ____________ (1867-1877).
Reconstruction
What did the program of social and political reform under the Reconstruction do for freed slaves in southern states?
provided black men with voting rights, black and white citizens elected biracial governments for the first time in U.S. history, freed slaves participated actively in the political affairs of the republic
While freed slaves received voting rights under the Reconstruction program, they did not receive land grants or any other means of ________ support, so many had to work as __________ for former slave owners.
economic; sharecroppers
Did Reconstruction last? What happened to it?
armies of occupation went back and forth, violent backlash soon dismantled the program’s reforms
- turn of the century, U.S. blacks faced violence and intimidation when they tried to vote
Between 1840 and 1914, some ______ European migrants landed on American shores.
25 million
How were blacks and Chinese migrants treated in Canada? What were their rights?
- blacks in Canada were free but not equal, segregated and isolated from the political and cultural mainstream
- Chinese migrants lived mostly in segregated Chinatowns in the cities of British Columbia, little voice in public affairs
Who emerged as the leader of the metis and indigenous peoples in western Canada, assuming the presidency of a provisional government in 1870?
Louis Riel (1844-1885)
What insurrection did Louis Riel lead to resist the Canadian Pacific Railroad and British Canadian settlement on indigenous and metis society?
the Northwest Rebellion (1885)
- Riel was executed for treason after the rebellion was subdued, news of his execution reverberated throughout Canadian history
How did Canadians view Louis Riel’s execution/what was it’s significance/the signs it pointed to?
- French Canadians took as an indication of the state’s readiness to subdue individuals who were culturally distinct and politically opposed to the drive for a British Canadian elite-dominated nation
- foreshadowed a long term of cultural conflict between Canadians of British, French, and indigenous ancestry
When numbers of migrants to Latin America were relatively small (like Chinese migrants to Cuba) they mostly intermarried and ________ into the working classes without leaving much foreign influence on the societies they joined.
assimilated
Large-scale migration brought added cultural ______ to Latin America. They formed ______ communities, and observed their inherited cultural and social traditions.
diversity; distinct
What was the most cosmopolitan city of 19th century Latin America?
Buenos Aires
- known as the “Paris of the Americas”
Who was an Argentine president who identified with Europe and worked for the development of a better Argentine society based on European values?
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811-1888)
What were the gauchos, and what did they symbolize in Latin American society?
Argentina’s gauchos= “cowboys”, symbol of Latin American identity
Gaucho society was associated with an ethnic _________ rarely found elsewhere in Latin America as anyone who adopted gaucho ways became a gaucho.
egalitarianism (EQUALITY amongst all people)
How did the gauchos slowly leave the pampas?
independence and caudillo rule disrupted gaucho life
- cowboys increasingly entered armies either voluntarily or under compulsion
- settled agriculture and ranches surrounded by barbed wire enclosed the pampas
Even more than in the United States and Canada, what was a central characteristic of Latin American society in the 19th century?
male dominion
What is machismo?
a social ethic that honored male strength, courage, aggressiveness, assertiveness, and cunning
Latin American women served in conjunction with men in what war, most famously as Zapatistas (followers of Emiliano Zapata)?
Mexican revolution
Women who became what demonstrated the most extreme forms of activism during the Mexican revolution?
soldaderas (female soldiers or supporters of soldiers)
