Chapter 3 & 4 Flashcards
Group experimental designs
Evaluate if the behavior of a treatment group (independent variable ON) is statistically significantly different from that of a control group (independent variable OFF). If so, then the difference is attributed to the independent variable.
Four weaknesses of group experimental designs
1) when the independent variable is a therapeutic intervention, no one wants to be assigned to the control group
2) focusing on the behavior of the group means we are not studying the behavior of the individual
3) the behavior of the treatment and control groups will differ simply because the people (or non-human animals) assigned to the two groups are different
4) they’re reliance on inferential statistics to evaluate if the independent variable change behavior
Single-subject experimental designs
Expose individuals to baseline (independent variable OFF) and experimental (independent variable ON) phases to determine if the independent variable systematically and reliably changes behavior
Internal validity
An experiment that provides clear evidence that a functional relationship exists between the independent variable and behavior change
Confounds
Variables that influence behavior within an experiment, but are not controlled by the researcher
Comparison (A-B) design
Arranges a baseline (A) phase (independent variable OFF) and an experimental (B) phase (independent variable ON)
Behavior is STABLE when
Over repeated observations, there is little “bounce” and no systematic trend
Reversal (A-B-A) design
The individuals behavior is evaluated in repeatedly, alternating baseline (A) and experimental (B) phases
Alternating-treatments design
The independent variable is turned ON and OFF rapidly to evaluate if this systematically in repeatedly change his behavior
Multiple-baseline design
Evaluates the functional relation between an independent variable and behavior by conducting a series of time-staggered A-B comparisons, either across behaviors, across situations, or across individuals
Multiple-baseline across-behaviors design
Time-staggered A-B replications are conducted across behaviors
Multiple-baseline across-situations design
Time-staggered A-B replications are demonstrated across situations
Multiple-baseline across-participants design
Time-staggered A-B replications are demonstrated across participants
For defining features of single-subject experimental designs
1) the focus is on the behavior of individuals, not groups
2) each subject experiences the baseline and experimental (intervention) phases
3) behavior is measured repeatedly and each phase until confident predictions about behavior may be made
4) internal validity is assessed through replication and evaluating the functional role of confounded variables
Three kinds of replications built into single-subject experimental designs
1) within-individual replication
2) across-individual replication
3) replication across labs or clinics
In _______ experimental designs, the focus is on the behavior of the group, not the individual.
Group
In Group experimental designs, inferential _______ are used to decide if behavior changed when the independent variable is manipulated
Statistics
In a _______-_______ experimental design, the focus is on the behavior of the individual, not the group.
Single-subject
When an experiment demonstrates that behavior changed, because the independent variable was turned ON and OFF, that experiment has high _______ _______
Internal validity
If another variable changed, when the independent variable is manipulated, that other variable could explain why behavior changed. That other variable is referred to as a _______.
Confound
Good experiments are those that can rule out confounds. These experiments have high _______ _______.
Internal validity
When confound cannot be ruled out, the experiment has _______ internal validity
Low
In the _______ design, behavior is compared between a baseline and a single intervention phase
Comparison (A-B)
Comparison designs are often referred to as quasi-experimental designs because they do not rule out _______ by repeatedly demonstrating that the independent variable has a systematic effect on behavior.
Confounds
In a single-subject experimental design, it is always true that every individual will experience the _______ and experimental (intervention) phases.
Baseline
In a single-subject experimental design, internal validity is assessed through _______. For example, if the independent variable systematically influences behavior, every time it is turned on and off, then the experiment has high internal validity.
Replication
The _______-_______ design is used either when it would be an ethical to turn off the independent variable, or when the independent variable is anticipated to produce a lasting (irreversible) effect.
Multiple-baseline
Two of the single-subject experimental designs establish internal validity by turning on and then off the independent variable. The first of these is the _______ design. The other is the _______-_______ design.
Reversal
Alternating-treatments
In a _______-_______ design, the effects of the independent variable may be replicated across behaviors, across situations, or across individuals.
Multiple baseline
Visual analysis
Involves looking at a graph of time-series single-subject behavior to see if a convincing change occurred when the independent variable was introduced/removed.
Trend
A systematic change in behavior over time
Level
The prevalence of the behavior during the stable portion of the phase/condition
When a specific stimulus occasions a specific reflex response, we say that the stimulus _______ the repo se.
Elicits
Habituation
Gradual reduction in responding following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus
When a stimulus causes a reflexive response, we say that the stimulus _______ the response. For all other instances of behavior influenced by a stimulus, we say the stimulus _______ the response.
Elicits
Evokes
When behavior systematically changes as a result of past experiences, we call this _______.
Learning
Natural selection “programs” individuals with innate _______ behaviors that help them survive in environments resembling those of their evolutionary ancestors.
Reflexive
These innate reflexive behaviors are _______ (elicited/evoked) by specific stimuli, such as loss of support under an infant’s head.
Elicited
_______ is the term used to describe the gradual reduction in responding following repeated presentations of the evocative stimulus.
Habituation
Elicited or evoked?
Johan walked into the room and noticed the lights were off. The darkness _______ the behavior of flipping the light switch on.
Evoked
Elicited or evoked?
Dr. Smith tapped the patella tendon just below Ashley’s kneecap. This _______ a reflexive knee jerk response (Ashley’s leg kicked forward.)
Elicited
Elicited or evoked?
The baby pictures on the cover of Nirvana’s Nevermind album was placed in a swimming pool. This aquatic stimulus _______ the swimming reflex.
Elicited
Neutral stimulus
A stimulus that does not occasion the response of interest
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that elicits a response without any prior learning
Unconditioned response (UR)
The response reliably elicited by the US
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A formally neutral stimulus that now evokes a conditioned response
Conditioned response (CR)
The response evoked by the CS. This may not be the same as the UR.
The word “stimulus” refers to an environmental event that can be observed (seen, heard, smelled, etc) by an individual. Thus, the color red is a _______.
Stimulus
More than one stimulus is referred to as stimuli. The plural is stimulus is _______.
Stimuli
When food is placed into the dog’s mouth, the dog salivates. Food is the _______ _______ and salivating is the _______.
Unconditioned stimuli
Unconditioned response
Before Pavlovian conditioning, the sound produced by shaking the box of dog biscuits was a _______ _______ because it did not increase salvation.
Neutral stimulus
When the US elicits salvation, salivating is classified as a(n) _______.
Unconditioned response (UR)
When the CS evokes salvation, salivating is classified as a(n) _______ _______.
Conditioned response (CR)
Before Pavlovian conditioning, the neutral stimulus has no function - it does not influence behavior. After Pavlovian conditioning, the _______ of the neutral stimulus changes; it is now a CS that evokes a CR.
Funtion
First thing learned in Pavlovian conditioning is that the CS signals a _______ _______ to the US.
Delay reduction - the time to the next US event is less than it was before the CS occurred.
Second thing learned in Pavlovian conditioning is that the CS _______ when the US is coming.
Signals
Third thing learned in Pavlovian conditioning is that the CS _______ which US is coming.
Signals
Through Pavlovian conditioning, individuals learn 3 things: (1) the CS signals a _______ reduction to the US; (2) the CS signals _______ the US is coming; and (3) the CS signals _______ US is coming.
(1) delayed
(2) when
(3) which
The first principle of effective Pavlovian conditioning is to use a phylogenetically important _______ _______.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
The second principle of effective Pavlovian conditioning is that the CS should be _______, that is noticeable.
Salient
The third principle of effective Pavlovian conditioning is the CS should signal a large _______ _______ to the US.
Delay reduction
The fourth and final principle of effective Pavlovian conditioning is to be sure that no other _______ signals a delay reduction to the US.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
If the CA always precedes the US by 2 seconds, and the average time between US events (US to US interval) is 200 seconds, what is the delay-reduction ratio?
Will this stimulus function as an effective CS?
100
Yes
If the average time between US events is 60 seconds and the CS always preceded the US by 55 seconds, what is the delay-reduction ratio?
Will this stimulus function as an effective CS?
1.09
No
Pavlovian generalization
Conditioned response to a novel stimulus that resembles the CS
Pavlovian extinction
The procedure of repeatedly presenting the CS without the US, the effect of which is a reduction or elimination of the CS’s ability to evoke the CR.
Graduated exposure therapy
The client is gradually exposed to successively stronger approximations of the CS. Before each new CS-approximation is presented, steps are taken to reduce/eliminate any fear evoked by the prior CS-approximation.
Spontaneous recovery
Increase in conditioned responding following the passage of time since Pavlovian extinction
In a procedure known as Pavlovian _______, the ______ is presented repeatedly without the US.
Extinction
CS
The effect of Pavlovian extinction on behavior is a reduction or elimination of the CS’s ability to evoke the _______.
CR
The therapy technique used to help. Annie’s overcome her fear of dogs is called ______ _______ therapy.
Graduated exposure
An early form of graduated exposure therapy was used by Mary ______ _______ to help Peter overcome his fear of rabbits and other furry animals.
Cover Jones
When graduated exposure therapy is used to treat phobias, the first CS ______ (e.g. a caged rabbit placed at a 12-ft distance) should be a stimulus anticipated to evoke little or no fear.
Approximation
The most effective treatment for human phobias is known as ______ _______ therapy.
Graduated exposure
Following an extinction session, it is common for the CS to ______ _______ it’s ability to evoke the CR.
Spontaneously recover
When using Pavlovian extinction to treat human phobias, _______ _______ is a bad thing because, after the extinction session, the client experiences fear when the CS is presented.
Spontaneous recovery
If more time passes between Pavlovian extinction sessions, _______ (more/less) spontaneous recovery will occur.
More
Spontaneous recovery decreases as ______ (more/less) Pavlovian extinction sessions are conducted.
More
Spontaneous recovery can be minimized by continuing each extinction session until the _______ is completely extinguished.
CR
