Chapter 3 Flashcards
Psychological Science & Research
basic research
answers fundamental questions about behaviour
applied research
investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems
research design
specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data
3 major types of research designs
- descriptive research
- correlational research
- experimental research
empiricism
based on systematic collection and analysis of data
scientific method
set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research
objectivity
free from personal bias or emotions
replication
repeating, adding to, or modifying previous findings
laws
principles that are general to apply to all situations in a given domain of inquiry
theory
an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many observed relationships within a given domain of inquiry
4 characteristics of good theories
- general - summarize many diff outcomes
- parsimonious - provide the simplest possible account of those outcomes
- inspiring - provide ideas for future research
- falsifiable - variables of interest can be measured and the relationships between the variables predicted by the theory can be shown thru research to be incorrect
research hypothesis
specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among variables
variable
any attribute that can assume diff values among diff ppl or across diff times or places
conceptual variables
abstract ideas that form the basis of research hypotheses, can be simple or complex
measured variables
variables consisting of numbers that represent the conceptual variables
Stanley Milgram
studied obedience to authority by administering electric shocks
deception
occurs whenever research participants are not completely fully informed about the nature of the project before participating in it
ethics
branch of philosophy that’s concerned with morality, refers to a set of principles and practices that provide moral guidance in a field
confederate
helper who pretends to be a participant
4 general moral principles of scientific research
- weighing risks against and benefits
- acting responsibly with integrity
- seeking justice
- respecting rights and dignity
some elements of respecting rights and dignity
- autonomy
- informed consent
- privacy
- confidentiality
- anonymity
Nuremberg Code
set of 10 principles written in 1947 in conjunction with the trials of Nazi physicians accused of cruel research on concentration camp prisoners, clarified importance of weighing risks and benefits and need for informed consent
Declaration of Helsinki
ethics code created by the World Medical Council in 1964, highlighted written protocols reviewed by a committee
Belmont report
set of US federal guidelines in 1978, recognized the principles of seeking justice, distributing risks and benefits fairly, recognizing respect for persons, and beneficence
Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects
applies to research conducted, supported, or regulated by the federal gov’t, involves an ethical review board responsible for reviewing protocols for problems
3 levels of risk
- exempt research (regulations don’t apply)
- minimal risk research (exposes particiapnts to risks that are no greater than those in daily life)
- at-risk research (poses greater than minimal risk)
APA Ethics Code
published in 1953 and includes 150 specific ethical standards that psychologists and students are expected to follow
debriefing
process of informing participants of the purpose of the study, revealing any deception, and correcting other misconceptions
pre-screening procedure
identifies and eliminates participants who are at high risk
descriptive research
provides a snapshot of current state
correlational research
discovers relationships among variables and allows prediction of future events from present knowledge
experimental research
assesses the causal impact of one or more experimental manipulations on a dependent variable
3 types of descriptive research
- case studies - descriptive records of an individual or groups’ experiences and behaviours
- survey - measure to get a picture of the beliefs of behaviours of a sample of ppl of interest
- naturalistic observation - observing everyday events
sample
ppl chosen to participate in research that is representative of all the ppl the researcher wishes to know about (population)
incidence
the prevalence of smth
descriptive statistics
numbers that summarize the distribution of scores on a measured variable
normal distribution
data distribution shaped like a bell
central tendency
the point in the distribution around which the data are centred
mean
most common measure of central tendency
outliers
extreme scores at either end of distribution
median
score in the centre of distribution
mode
value that occurs most frequently
dispersion
refers to the extent to which the scores are all tightly clustered or spread out
maximum
largest value of variable
minimum
smallest value of variable
range
refers to parameters of the values
standard deviation
common measure of dispersion
scatter plot
visual image of the relationship between two variables
linear relationship
when an association between the variables can be approximated with a straight line
positive linear
when straight line indicates that individuals who have above-average values for one variable also tend to have above average values for the other
negative linear
when above average values for one variable tend to be associate with below-average values for the other
nonlinear relationship
relationships that can’t be described with a straight line
curvilinear relationship
change in direction that can’t be described with a straight line
Pearson correlation coefficient
most common measure of the strength of linear relationships
multiple regression
statistical technique based on correlation coefficients among variables that allows predicting a single outcome variable from more than one predictor variable
common-causal variable (third variable)
a variable that isn’t part of the hypothesis but causes both the predictor and outcome variables, thus producing the observed correlation
spurious relationship
relationship in which a common-causal variable produces and explains the relationship
independent variable
causing variable that is created and manipulated
dependent variable
measured variable that’s expected to be influenced by the manipulation
random assignment to conditions
the condition that each participant is assigned to is determined thru random process
valid
conclusions are legitimate
reliability
refers to consistency of a measured variable
threats to validity
- construct validity (false claim that measured variables measure the variables of interest)
- statistical validity (conclusions may be incorrect bc of absence or incorrect interpretation of statistical tests)
- internal validity (false claim that the independent variable caused the dependent variable)
- external validity (false claim that the results are general, whereas the effects may only be found under limited conditions or for specific ppl)
construct validity
the extent to which the measures used adequately assess the conceptual variables they were designed to
statistical significance
refers to the confidence with which a scientist can conclude that data are not due to chance or error
statistical conclusion validity
the extent to which we can be certain that the researcher has drawn accurate conclusions about the statistical significance of the research
internal validity
the extent to which we can trust the conclusions that have been drawn about the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables
confounding variables
variables other than the independent variable on which participants in one experimental condition differ systematically from those in other conditions
experimenter bias
a situation in which the experimenter treats the participants in various conditions differently, resulting in an invalid confirmation of hypothesis
blind to condition
experimenters don’t know which conditions the participants are assigned to
double-blind experiment
both the researcher and participants are blind to condition
external validity
refers to the extent to which the results of a research design can be generalized beyond the specific way the original experiment was conducted
generalization
the extent to which relationships among variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of ppl and manipulated variables
limiting condition
if results are diff across various groups
meta-analysis
statistical technique that uses the results of existing studies to integrate and draw conclusions about those studies
exact/direct replication
scientists attempt to exactly recreate the scientific methods used in conditions of an earlier study to determine whether the results are the same
conceptual replication
occurs when a scientist tries to confirm previous findings using a diff set of methods to offer insight about how generalizable the findings are
