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PSYC 337 > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Correlate

A

A factor that co-varies or is associated with some outcome of interest

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2
Q

Risk factor

A
  • factor or characteristic associated w increased risk of developing condition Y
  • if X is shown to occur before Y, X is a risk factor for Y
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3
Q

Variable risk factor

A
  • risk factor that can change within a person (eg variance in level of depression)
  • In a situation where X preceeds Y, if X can be changed, it is a variable risk factor
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4
Q

Fixed marker

A
  • In a situation where X preceeds Y, X is a fixed marker of Y if X cannot be changed
  • eg history of abuse during childhood, race
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5
Q

Variable marker

A
  • variable risk factor that, when changed, doesn’t influence outcome of interest
  • if changing X does not lead to a change in Y
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6
Q

Causal risk factor

A
  • variable risk factor that, when changed, changes likelihood of outcome of interest
  • if changing X leads to a change in Y
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7
Q

Necessary cause

A
  • characteristic (X) that MUST exist for a disorder (Y) to occur
  • most mental disorders do not have necessary causes
  • ex: to develop general paresis (Y) one must have previously had syphilis (X)
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8
Q

Sufficient cause

A
  • a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder
  • one theory hypothesizes that hopelessness (X) is a sufficient cause for depression (Y): if you are hopeless enough you will become depressed
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9
Q

Contributory causes

A
  • increase probability of a disorder developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur
  • if X occurs, probability of Y occurring increases
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10
Q

Distal risk factors (or distal causal factors)

A
  • causal factors occurring early in life that may not show effects for many years
  • may contribute to predisposition to develop a disorder
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11
Q

Proximal risk factors

A
  • factors that operate shortly before occurrence of symptoms of a disorder
  • may be a condition that proves too much for someone and triggers the onset of a disorder
  • may involve biological changes like damage to parts of left hemisphere that can lead to depression
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12
Q

Reinforcing contributory cause

A
  • condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring
  • eg extra attention/sympathy for ill person can unintentionally discourage recovery
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13
Q

Causal patterns

A
  • when more than one causal factor is involved (eg A, B and C lead to Y)
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14
Q

Diathesis-Stress Models

A
  • view of abnormal behaviour as result of a major stressor being experienced by someone who has a preexisting vulnerability for that disorder
  • diathesis = predisposition toward developing a disorder (biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal factors)
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15
Q

Additive model

A
  • diathesis and stress add up to lead to disorder (someone w high level of diathesis might only need a small amount of stress to develop a disorder)
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16
Q

Interactive model

A
  • some amount of diathesis must be present before stress will have any effect
  • effect between one variable (stress) and another (disorder) varies at different levels of the third variable (diathesis)
  • see textbook 3.1.3 for graphs to help understand
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17
Q

Protective factors

A
  • decrease likelihood of negative outcomes for those at risk
  • not the same as absence of risk factor
  • successfully dealing with a stressor (usually moderate and not mild or extreme) can turn it into a protective factor
  • ex having a warm and supportive parent
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18
Q

Resilience

A
  • ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances
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19
Q

Biopsychosocial viewpoint

A
  • biological, psychological, and social factors all interact and play a role in psychopathology and treatment
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20
Q

4 categories of biological factors particularly relevant to development of maladaptive behaviour

A
  • Genetic vulnerabilities
  • Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity
  • Neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities in the brain or other parts of the central nervous system
  • temperament
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21
Q

Genes

A
  • long molecules of DNA
  • we have one copy of each gene from each parent
  • each gene exists in 2 or more alternate forms called alleles
  • genes determine broad temperamental features in newborns
  • most mental disorders show at least some genetic influence
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22
Q

Chromosomes

A
  • chain-like structures within cell nucleus that contain genes
  • each human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes
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23
Q

Down syndrome

A
  • intellectual disability
  • trisomy (3 chromosomes instead of 2) in chromosome 21
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24
Q

Polygenic

A
  • mental disorder influenced by multiple genes or by multiple polymorphisms of genes
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25
Q

Polymorphism

A
  • naturally occurring variations of genes
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26
Q

Genotype

A
  • a person’s total genetic endowment
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27
Q

Phenotype

A
  • observed structural and functional characteristics of a person that result from interaction between genotype and environment
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28
Q

Genotype-environment correlation

A
  • genotypic vulnerability that can shape a child’s environmental experiences
  • eg aggressive child is rejected so finds aggressive friends, becomes teenage delinquent
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29
Q

Passive effect of genotype on environment

A
  • resulting from genetic similarity of parents and children
  • eg smart parents provide more stimulating environment for child, creating environment that interacts in positive way with child’s genetic endowment for high intelligence
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30
Q

Evocative effect of genotype on environment

A
  • child’s genotype evokes particular kinds of reactions from social and physical env.
  • ex active and happy babies draw out more positive responses from others
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31
Q

Active effect of genotype on environment

A
  • child seeks out or builds an environment that is congenial (“niche building”)
  • ex extraverted children seek company of others, enhances social tendencies
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32
Q

Family history (or pedigree) method

A
  • method used in field of behavior genetics
  • examines incidence of disorder in relatives of an index case to determine whether incidence increases in proportion to the degree of the hereditary relationship
  • limitation: ppl closely related more likely to share similar environment, hard to separate genetics and environment
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33
Q

Twin method

A
  • method in field of behavior genetics
  • compare concordance rate between identical and nonidentical twins
  • concordance rates of disorders in identical twins is not 100% so no disorder is completely heritable
  • evidence not conclusive bc identical twins might be treated more similarly
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34
Q

Adoption method

A
  • method in field of behavior genetics
  • comparison of biological and adoptive relatives with and without a given disorder to assess genetic vs environmental influences
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35
Q

Linkage analysis

A
  • genetic research strategy in which occurence of a disorder in an extended family is compared with that of a genetic marker for a physical characteristic or biological process that is known to be located on a particular chromosome
  • eg tracing eye color and schizophrenia
  • difficulty in replicating these results
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36
Q

Association studies

A
  • genetic research strategy comparing frequency of certain genetic markers known to be located on particular chromosomes in people with and without a particular disorder
37
Q

Developmental systems approach

A
  • genetic activity influences neural activity, which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment
  • these influences are bidirectional
38
Q

Causes of neurotransmitter imbalances

A
  • excessive production and release of neurotransmitter
  • neurotransmitters are deactivated when released into the synapse
  • problems with receptors in postsynaptic neuron (too sensitive or insensitive)
  • ex antidepressants Prozac and Zoloft slow reuptake of serotonin
39
Q

5 kinds of neurotransmitters most studied in relationship to psychopathology

A
  • norepinephrine (monoamine; emergency reactions, attention, orientation)
  • dopamine (monoamine; pleasure and cognitive processing; implicated in schizophrenia)
  • serotonin (monoamine; mood; role in anxiety and depression and suicide)
  • glutamate (implicated in schizophrenia)
  • gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) (reducing anxiety and other high-arousal states)
40
Q

Hormones and endocrine system

A
  • chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands
  • endocrine glands release hormones into bloodstream
  • CNS linked to endocrine system by effects of hypothalamus on pituitary gland (master gland of body, produces a variety of hormones that control other glands)
41
Q

Temperament

A
  • child’s reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation
  • basis in biology
  • basis from which personality develops
  • remains moderately stable but can change
42
Q

5 dimensions of temperament present at 2-3 months

A
  • fearfulness; irritability/frustration; positive affect; activity level; attentional persistence/effortful control
  • related to neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness/agreeableness
43
Q

Gender differences in temperament

A
  • no differences for neuroticism
  • boys show slightly higher levels of activity and intense pleasure
  • girls have greater control of impulses and ability to regulate attention
44
Q

Behaviorally inhibited children

A
  • are fearful and hypervigilant in novel/unfamiliar situations
  • significant heritable component
  • when stable is risk factor for dev. of anxiety disorders later in childhood and probably in adulthood
45
Q

Behaviorally uninhibited children

A
  • show little fear of anything
  • may have difficulty learning moral standards for behavior from parents or society
  • more likely to exhibit aggressive/delinquent behavior at age 13
46
Q

3 influential psychological perspectives

A
  • psychodynamic
  • behavioral
  • cognitive-behavioral
  • all emphasize importance of early experience and social factors
47
Q

Psychodynamic perspective

A
  • psychological perspective
  • Freud’s psychoanalytic theory (first)
  • later Ego Psychology (Anna Freud), Object-Relations Theory, Interpersonal Perspective (Alfred Adler), and Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)
48
Q

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

A
  • behavior results from interaction of id, ego, and superego
  • if unresolved, conflict between the 3 lead to mental disorders
  • Id: instinctual drives (appears first in infancy), operates on pleasure principle
  • Ego: mediates demands of the id and realities of external world, operates on reality principle
  • Superego: conscience, morals, inner control system
49
Q

Primary process thinking

A
  • Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
  • gratification of id demands by means of imagery or fantasy (without ability to undertake the realistic actions)
50
Q

Secondary process thinking

A
  • Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
  • reality-oriented rational processes of ego for dealing w external world and exercise of control over id demands
51
Q

Freud and anxiety

A
  • ego can cope with elevated anxiety through rational measures
  • if anxiety exists only in unconscious it cannot be dealt w through rational measures so ego resorts to irrational protective measures called ego-defense mechanisms
  • defense mechanisms reduce anxiety by pushing painful ideas out of consciousness instead of dealing w them
52
Q

Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

A

ORAL STAGE: 0-2 years
ANAL STAGE: 2-3 years
PHALLIC STAGE: 3-6 years
LATENCY PERIOD: 6-12 years (sexual motivations recede as child becomes preoccupied w developing skills and other activities)
GENITAL STAGE: 12+ years/after puberty

53
Q

Ego Psychology

A
  • part of psychoanalytic perspective
  • Anna Freud
  • ego in foreground of ego-defense mechanisms
  • important organizing role of ego in personality dev.
  • psychopathology develops when ego does not control/delay impulse gratification or does not use defense-mechanisms properly
54
Q

Object-Relations Theory

A
  • part of psychodynamic perspective
  • focus on interactions of individual w real and imagined other ppl and on relationships ppl experience between external and internal objects (symbolic representations of ppl in child’s environment)
  • through introjection, child incorporates these objects into their personality
55
Q

Interpersonal Perspective

A
  • part of psychodynamic perspective
  • Alfred Adler defected from Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
  • social and cultural forces rather than inner instincts as determinants of behavior
  • psychopathology is rooted in unfortunate tendencies we have developed while dealing w interpersonal environments
56
Q

Attachment Theory

A
  • part of psychodynamic perspective
  • John Bowlby’s theory
  • emphasizes importance of early experience (esp. w attachment relationships) as foundation for later functioning
  • infant plays more active role in shaping her own development
57
Q

Criticisms of psychoanalytic perspective

A
  • failure as a scientific theory to explain abnormal behavior
  • fails to realize limits of self-reports as primary information source
  • lack of scientific evidence to support effectiveness of traditional psychoanalysis
58
Q

Humanistic perspective

A
  • views human nature as basically “good”
  • emphasizes present conscious processes
  • emphasis on ppls inherent capacity for responsible self-direction
  • focus on values and personal growth
  • Carl Rogers developed systematic formulation of self-concept
  • psychopathology is blocking or distortion of personal growth
59
Q

Existential perspective

A
  • less optimistic than humanistic perspective
  • emphasis on irrational tendencies and difficulties inherent in self-fulfillment
  • abnormal behavior seen as product of failure to deal constructively w existential despair and frustration
60
Q

Behavioral Perspective

A
  • psychological perspective
  • reaction against unscientific methods of psychoanalysis
  • study of directly observable behavior + stimuli/reinforcing conditions that control it
  • developed through lab research, not clinical practice
  • Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner, Bandura
61
Q

Learning

A
  • modification of behavior as a consequence of experience
  • focus of behavioral perspective
62
Q

Classical conditioning

A
  • neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly w unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditoned behavior
  • neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response
  • not as blind or automatic as once thought – conditioning only occurs when CS provides reliable info ab occurrence of US (stimulus-stimulus expectancy)
63
Q

Extinction (classical conditioning)

A
  • gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when it is no longer reinforced
64
Q

Spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)

A
  • return of learned response at some time after extinction has occurred
65
Q

John B. Watson (1878-1958)

A
  • changed focus of psyc to study of overt behavior (behaviorism)
  • abnormal behavior is result of inadvertent earlier conditioning and can be modified through reconditioning
66
Q

Operant (or instrumental) conditioning

A
  • individual learns how to achieve a goal, get reward or avoid smt unpleasant (which reinforces behavior)
  • response-outcome expectancy (response will lead to reward outcome
  • instrumental responses are especially persistent when reinforcement is intermittent (ex gambling)
  • conditioned avoidance (avoid stressful situation) plays role in many patterns of abnormal behavior
67
Q

Generalization (classical and operant conditioning)

A
  • tendency of response conditioned to one stimulus to be elicited by similar stimuli
68
Q

Discrimination (classical and operant conditioning)

A
  • ability to interpret and respond differently to two or more similar stimuli
69
Q

Observational learning

A
  • learning through observation alone
  • Albert Bandura (Bobo doll experiment)
70
Q

Criticisms of behavioral approach

A
  • concerned only with symptoms, not causes (BUT still effective therapy so this isnt super valid)
  • oversimplification of human behavior (criticism might be due to misunderstandings)
71
Q

Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective

A
  • focus on how thoughts and info processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior
  • Bandura, Beck,
  • schemas and self-schemas
72
Q

Bandura and the cognitive-behavioral perspective

A
  • Bandura: we learn by internal-reinforcement; ppl have a “capacity for self-direction”; theory of “self-efficacy” (belief that one can achieve desired goals)
  • believed cognitive-behavioral treatments work by improving self-efficacy
73
Q

Self-schema

A
  • our view of what we are, what we might become, and what is important to us
  • notion of various roles we occupy
74
Q

Assimilation

A
  • adding new experience to existing schema
75
Q

Accommodation

A
  • changing schema to incorporate new info that doesn’t fit
76
Q

Schema

A
  • underlying representation of knowledge that guides info processing and can lead to distortions
  • pretty resistant to change
  • Beck: psychopathology characterized by maladaptive schema(s) developed as result of adverse early learning experiences
77
Q

Attribution Theory

A
  • part of cognitive-behavioral perspective
  • attribution: assigning causes to things that happen
  • non-depressed ppl have self-serving bias
78
Q

Cognitive Therapy

A
  • Beck: founder of cognitive therapy
  • shift in focus from behavior to underlying cognitions
  • central issue: how to best alter distorted and maladaptive cognitions
79
Q

Social perspective

A
  • factors beyond our control in early childhood can deeply influence individuals
  • 6 main social factors with detrimental effects on socioemotional development: early deprivation/trauma, problems in parenting style, marital discord/divorce, low socioeconomic status/unemployment, maladaptive peer relationships, and prejudice/discrimination
80
Q

Early deprivation or trauma

A
  • risk factor in social perspective
  • ex institutionalization (orphanages)
  • ex neglect or abuse in the home (higher rates of teen + adult psychopathology; disorganized and disoriented style of attachment)
  • ex separation (long-term effects depend on support and reassurance given by other caregivers)
81
Q

Problems in parenting style

A
  • risk factor in social perspective
  • parental psychopathology linked to increased risk for wide range of developmental difficulties
  • authoritative (high warmth + control): most positive early social development
  • authoritarian parenting (low warmth, high control): children tend to be irritable and moody, teens have lower social and academic performance
  • permissive/indulgent parenting (high warmth, low control): associated w impulsive/aggressive behavior in children and teens
  • neglectful/uninvolved parenting (low warmth+control): disruptions in attachment, moodiness, low self-esteem, conduct problems
82
Q

Marital discord and divorce

A
  • risk factor in social perspective
  • marital discord can impact child’s social relationships
  • divorced and separated ppl overrepresented among psychiatric patients
  • children of divorce can have psychological problems but usually there are signs of these before divorce too
83
Q

Low socioeconomic status and unemployment

A
  • risk factor in social perspective
  • lower socioeconomic class = higher incidence of mental disorders
  • in teens, perceptions of own social status most strongly linked to higher rates of mental disorders
  • unemployment=enhanced vulnerability to psychopathology
84
Q

Maladaptive peer relationships

A
  • risk factor in social perspective
  • bullying and cyberbullying
  • prosocial and antisocial popular children
  • rejected children : too aggressive or very withdrawn
  • peer social problems may reflect heritable diathesis but also serve as stressors that increase likelihood of later disorder
85
Q

Prejudice and discrimination

A
  • risk factor in social perspective
  • higher levels of stress and negative effects on physical and mental health
86
Q

Cultural Perspective-

A
  • concerned w impact of culture on definition and manifestation of mental disorders
  • sociocultural factors can influence which disorders develop, forms they take, their courses, and prevalence
  • more favourable course of schizophrenia in developing countries vs developed
  • stress more tied to depression in western cultures
  • in japan secure attachment is being dependent and not outwardly expressing emotions
87
Q

Cultural syndromes

A
  • cultural concept of distress
  • clusters of clinical symptoms that often appear together in individuals from certain cultures
88
Q

Cultural idioms of distress

A
  • cultural concept of distress
  • culture-specific ways of expressing distress to others
89
Q

Cultural explanations

A
  • cultural concept of distress
  • different ways of explaining causes of different symptoms or disorders

PSYC 337 (15 decks)

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