CHAPTER 3 Flashcards
Habituation
repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in repsonse
Dishabituation
recovery of a response to a stmiulus after habituation has occured
Associative learning
creation of a pairing or association either between two stimuli or a behaviour and a response
Two types of associative learning
classical and operant
Classical Conditioning
taking an unconditioned stimulus to turn a stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
unconditioned stimulus
any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response
neutral stimulus
stimulus that can not produce a reflexive response
Acquisition
taking an unconditioned stimulus to turn a stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
Extinction
When a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times
Spontaneous recovery
if an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak response can sometimes be exhibited
Generalization
stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
Discrimination
organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Operant condition
associated with BF. skinner
voluntary behaviours with consequences
Reinforcement
increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behaviour
Punishment
decreasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behaviour
Positive Reinforcement
increase a behaviour by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behaviour
Common positive reinforcer
money
Negative Reinforcement
increase the frequency of a behaviour by removing something unpleasant
Escape learning and Avoidance learning are examples of
Negative Reinforcers
Escape learning
the role of the behaviour is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists
Avoidance learning
to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
discriminative stimulus
indicates that the reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning
Positive punishment
adds an unpleasant consequence in response to behaviour to reduce that behaviour
Negative punishment
reduction of a behaviour when a stimulus is removed
Fixed Ratio Schedules
reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
Variable Ratio Schedules
reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of that behavior
Fixed Interval Schedules
reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time has elapsed
Variable Interval Schedules
reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a varuing time has elapsed
Which schedule works the fastest?
Variable ratio
Which schedule is the most resistant to extinction?
Variable ratio
Which schedule is the least resistant to extinction?
Fixed ratio
Which schedule has a brief moment of no responses after the behaviour?
Fixed schedules
Shaping
in operant conditioning where rewarding increasingly specific behaviours
Latent learning
leaning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
Instinctive drift
the difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors
Observational learning
process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching
Observational learning neurons
mirror neurons
mirror neurons
located in frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebal cortex and fire both when an inficual performs an action and when that individual observes someone doing that action
Modeling
determining a behaviour by observational learning
The formation of memories can be divided into three major processes
encoding, storage, retrieval
Encoding
processing of putting new information into memory
Autonomic processing
information gained without effort
controlled processing
active memorization
Visual encoding
visualize it
semantic encoding
put it into meanigful context
acoustic encoding
stored the way it sounds
Strongest and weakest encoding types
semantic encoding- strongest
Visual encoding- weakest
self-reference effect
tend to recall information the best when we can put it into context of our own lives
maintenance reheal
repitition of a piece of information to either keep it in working memory (to prevent forgetting) or in short-term and eventually long term memory
Mnemonics
common way to memorize information (lists)
method of loci
involves associating each item in a list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
peg-words
associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
chunking
known of clustering
memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and group them together in group of elements with related meaning
Sensory memory
only lasts a very short time
consists of both iconic and echoic memory
iconic memory
visual
echoic memory
auditory
short term memory
primarily in the hippocampus
limited in capacity to 7 iyrmd
memory fades quickly
working memory
closely related to short term memory
in the hippocampus
keep information in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information
Long term memory
the knowledge we are then able to recall on demand, sometimes for the rest of our lives
elaborative rehearsal
association of the information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory
where are the very long-term memories located? ie names birthdays
moved over time back to the cerebral cortex
Two types of long-term memory
implicit and explicit
explicit memory
also known as declarative consists of memories that require conscious recall
implicit memory
procedural and consists of our skills and conditioned responses
semantic memory
facts, concepts
episodic memory
events, experiences
Retrieval
process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained
Recognition
the process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned is far easier than recall
Spacing effect
finding that long-term memory is enhanced when learning events are spaced apart in time, rather than massed in immediate succession
semantic network
concepts are linked together based on similar meaning
spreading activation
other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
Priming
spreading activation of a retrevial cue
recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
Context effects
another retrival cue
memory is aided by being in a physical location where encoding took place
state-dependent memory (state-dependent effects)
a person’s mental state can also affect recall
Serial position effect
retrieval cue that appears while leaning lists
- remembering early and late items
primacy effects
remembering early items
recency effects
remembering later items
Alzheimer’s disease
degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of AcH in neurons linked to the hippocampus
dementia
a loss of congnitive function
Microscopic findings of Alzheimer’s
neurofibrillary tangles and B-amyloid plaques
Korsakoff’s syndrome
memory loss cause by thiamine deficiency in the brain
Retrograde amneasia
the loss of previously formed memories
Anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new memories
Confabulation
process of creating vivid but fabricated memories
Agnosia
loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds
Interference
retrical error cause by existance of other simi;lar information
proactive interference
old information interfering with new learning
retroactive interference
new information interfering with old information
Prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point in the future
misinformation effect
The misinformation effect occurs when the information or context of a memory drastically changes the perception of an event
Source-monitoring error
involves the confusion between semantic and episodic memory
Neuroplasticity
neural connections form rapidy in response to stimula
Synaptic pruning
weak neural connections are broken and stron ones are bolstered to increasing the efficency of our brain
Long-term potentiation
as a sitmulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density
