Chapter 23: Nation Building and Economic Transformation in the Americas, 1800-1890 Flashcards
What drove Latin America towards independence?
Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal, not revolutionary ideals
Spanish patriots fighting the French created what new political body?
Junta Central, to administer controlled areas. It was seen as temporary to govern Spain while the king was a prisoner. They claimed the right to exercise the king’s power over the colonies, which provoked a crisis
“After the deposition of King Ferdinand, “patriot” Spain outside the control of the French armies split into a number of autonomous provinces. Resistance centred in provincial committees (juntas) that organized armies. A Central Junta at Aranjuez sought to control this nascent federalism and the local levies” (https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/The-French-invasion-and-the-War-of-Independence-1808-14)
Who was Simon Bolivar and what did he do?
He was a military leader who became the leader of an independent movement to independence.
“Simón Bolívar (born July 24, 1783, Caracas, Venezuela, New Granada [now in Venezuela]—died December 17, 1830, near Santa Marta, Colombia) was a Venezuelan soldier and statesman who led the revolutions against Spanish rule in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. He was president of Gran Colombia (1819–30) and dictator of Peru (1823–26).” (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Simon-Bolivar)
What was Bolivar’s ultimate success aided by?
The decision to enlist demobilized English veterans of Napoleonic Wars, military revolt in Spain in 1820
“6,500 British volunteers joined Bolivar in the British Legion in the independence wars from 1817-21” https://blogs.fcdo.gov.uk/nigelbaker/2010/09/28/great-britain-and-bolivar/
What happened when news of Ferdinand’s abdication reached Buenos Aires?
A junta was created that overthrew the viceroy, declared independence after he regained the throne.
“On May 25, 1810, a crowd led by Domingo French and Antonio Beruti gathered in the Plaza de la Victoria, today known as Plaza de Mayo, to demand the convening of an Open Town Hall and the resignation of the Spanish viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros.
Popular pressure led to the formation of the First Patriotic Government, a junta that pledged to govern in the name of Ferdinand VII, the captive Spanish monarch. Presided over by Cornelio Saavedra, with Mariano Moreno and Juan José Paso as secretaries, and Manuel Alberti, Miguel de Azcuénaga, Manuel Belgrano, Juan José Castelli, Juan Larrea and Domingo Matheu as members, this junta marked the first major step towards emancipation.
The context of 1810 was complex. The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, which included the territories of present-day Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay, was under Spanish rule. However, Spain was facing a deep crisis: invaded by Napoleon in 1808, King Ferdinand VII had been forced to abdicate, creating a power vacuum that the Creoles took advantage of to challenge the authority of Viceroy Cisneros.
The echoes of the English invasions and the news of the formation of a Council of Regency in Cadiz, in an attempt to resist the French siege, reached a restless Buenos Aires. In this climate, on 22 May 1810, a Cabildo Abierto was called, a decisive assembly where the neighbours debated the removal of the viceroy.
Finally, on 24 May, 476 residents signed a petition for the creation of a Junta Provisoria Gubernativa. The following day, the First Junta was officially constituted, deposing Viceroy Cisneros. This event not only meant the creation of a new local government, but also a break with the Junta of Seville, which ruled in the name of the Spanish monarch.
The May Revolution not only represented the defence of popular sovereignty, but also illuminated the aspiration for freedom and independence, leaving a legacy of protagonism and self-determination that endures to this day. In the Casa Rosada Museum, a lithograph of the Fiestas Mayas and a manuscript with the signatures of the members of the First Junta commemorate this transcendental historical event.”
(“https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/international/latest-news/50516-25-may-1810-214-years-after-the-may-revolution”)
What happened when news of Napoleon’s invasion of Spain reached Mexico?
conservative Spaniards (penninsulars) in Mexico City overthrew the viceroy because it was too sympathetic to creoles (criollos).
Who was Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and what did he do?
He was a parish priest of Dolores who rang church bells and urged a crowd to fight the oppression of Spanish officials. The wealthy turned against him and executed him.
“Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (born May 8, 1753, Corralejo, near Guanajuato, Mexico—died July 30, 1811, Chihuahua) was a Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary leader who is called the father of Mexican independence.
[…]
On September 16, 1810, he rang the church bell in Dolores to call his parishioners to an announcement of revolution against the Spanish. His speech was not only an encouragement to revolt but a cry for racial equality and the redistribution of land. It became known as the Grito de Dolores (“Cry of Dolores”).” (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Miguel-Hidalgo-y-Costilla)
Who was Jose Maria Morelos and what did he do?
He was a priest and former student of Hidalgo who continued the revolution and convened a congress that declared independence and drafted a constitution, but was executed by loyalists.
“José María Morelos (born September 30, 1765, Valladolid, Mexico—died December 22, 1815, San Cristóbal) was a revolutionary priest who assumed leadership of the Mexican independence movement after Miguel Hidalgo’s 1810 rebellion and subsequent execution.
[…]
Morelos called the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813 to form a government and draft a constitution. In November the congress declared Mexico’s independence, and in October 1814 at Apatzingán it promulgated an egalitarian constitution. The congress was safe, however, only so long as it moved from place to place under the protection of Morelos’s nomadic army. Finally, royalist forces caught up with the insurgents, but Morelos fought a rearguard action allowing most of the revolutionary government to escape. He was captured, however, and, after being defrocked, was shot as a traitor.” (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Maria-Morelos)
What did news of military revolt in Spain do?
It unsettled conservative groups. Colonel Augustin de Iturbide formed an alliance with insurgents, declared independence, and created a monarchy with Iturbide as emperor.
“Agustín de Iturbide (born September 27, 1783, Valladolid, Viceroyalty of New Spain [now Morelia, Mexico]—died July 19, 1824, Padilla, Mexico) was a Mexican caudillo (military chieftain) who became the leader of the conservative factions in the Mexican independence movement and, as Agustín I, briefly emperor of Mexico.
Like many young men of the upper classes in Spanish America, Iturbide entered the royalist army, becoming an officer in the provincial regiment of his native city in 1797. In 1810 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla offered him a post with his revolutionary army, but Iturbide refused and pledged himself to the Spanish cause instead. His defense of Valladolid against the revolutionary forces of José María Morelos dealt a crushing blow to the insurgents, and for this victory Iturbide was given command of the military district of Guanajuato and Michoacán. In 1816, however, grave charges of extortion and violence caused his removal.
By 1820 the radical independence movement was almost entirely extinguished. Both Hidalgo and Morelos had been captured and executed; only guerrilla bands (under the command of General Vicente Guerrero) prevented the complete victory of the royalists. The Mexican independence movement then performed a curious about-face. In reaction to a liberal coup d’état in Spain, the conservatives in Mexico (formerly staunch royalists) advocated immediate independence. Iturbide assumed command of the army and, at Iguala, allied his reactionary force with Guerrero’s radical insurgents. Iturbide’s Plan de Iguala, published on February 24, 1821, proclaimed three guarantees: (1) immediate independence from Spain, (2) equality for Spaniards and Creoles, and (3) the supremacy of Roman Catholicism and a ban on all other religions. The Army of the Three Guarantees quickly subjugated the country; on August 24, 1821, Juan O’Donojú, the new representative of the Spanish king, signed the Treaty of Córdoba, recognizing the independence of Mexico.
The revolutionary coalition quickly fell apart as Iturbide removed Guerrero and his insurgent following from influence. On May 19, 1822, Iturbide placed the crown upon his own head and became Agustín I, emperor of Mexico. An arbitrary and extravagant ruler, he proved unable to bring order and stability to his country, and all parties soon turned against him. Opposition solidified behind Antonio López de Santa Anna, whose own plan called for Iturbide’s overthrow and exile. On March 19, 1823, Iturbide abdicated and went first to Italy and then to England. In 1824, however, he returned to Mexico, unaware that the congress had decreed his death. Captured on July 15, he was executed four days later. Although regarded by most scholars as a self-serving military adventurer, he has remained for the Roman Catholic church and for the conservative classes the great hero of Mexican independence.” (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Agustin-de-Iturbide)
Who was Pedro I and what did he do?
He was King John VI’s son, who aligned himself with the rising tide of independence in Brazil and declared its independence as a constitutional monarchy. He was committed to both the monarchy and many liberal principles.
“Pedro I (born Oct. 12, 1798, Lisbon, Port.—died Sept. 24, 1834, Lisbon) was the founder of the Brazilian empire and first emperor of Brazil, from Dec. 1, 1822, to April 7, 1831, also reckoned as King Pedro (Peter) IV of Portugal.
Generally known as Dom Pedro, he was the son of King John VI of Portugal. When Napoleon conquered Portugal in 1807, Pedro accompanied the royal family in its flight to Brazil. He remained there as regent when King John returned to Portugal in 1821.
Pedro surrounded himself with ministers who counseled independence. When the Portuguese Cortês (Parliament), preferring colonial status for Brazil, demanded that Pedro return to Lisbon to “complete his political education,” he issued a declaration of Brazilian independence on Sept. 7, 1822. Within three months he was crowned emperor.” (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pedro-I)
How did the Canadian nation begin?
Regional political leaders realized that railroads and internal improvements required a “national” government. Negotiations resulted in the Confederation of 1867, a union of colonial governments of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
Spain and Portugal had no local governments like North America, which resulted in what?
Drafters of Latin American constitutions were less constrained by practical political experience and experimented with untested political institutions. For example, Simon Bolivar created a 4th branch.
What did many Latin American nations find difficult?
Defining the role of the Catholic Church after independence and limiting the power of the military.
Who established Gran Colombia?
Simon Bolivar
Why did successful patriot leaders have mass followings during wars for independence?
They used patriotic symbols.
