Chapter 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 Flashcards
Organic Chemistry
the study of compounds that contain bonds between carbon atoms
Inorganic Chemistry
the study of all other compounds that do not include carbon
Why is carbon so important?
1) Carbon has four valence electrons -> it can form strong covalent bonds with many other elements.2) Carbon can bond with carbon3) Carbon is extremely versatile and can bond in many ways and in many shapes4) Carbon makes up all life
Macromolecule
(very big polymer) Giant molecules, which are made up of thousands of smaller molecules. Make up most organic compounds on living cells. They are sorted into groups by chemical compounds.
How are macromolecules formed?
through polymerization
What is polymerization?
the process by which smaller compounds are joined toegther to make larger ones
Smaller compounds that join together to form larger ones are called….
monomers
What do monomers form?
polymers
The monomers in a polymer must always be identical.(True or False)
False; they can be different or identical
How many major groups are the macromolecules sorted into?
4
What are the major groups that macromolecules are sorted into?
Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins
What are carbohydrates made of?
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms usually in a ratio of 1:2:1(Ex: [CH2O]n) {little n is a variable that represents a number between 3-8, which you can plug into the 1:2:1 ratio}
What is the purpose of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are the main source of energy of living things; some organisms (such as plants) use them for structural purposes; some use for storage of energy
What are the two categories of carbohydrates?
Simple sugars and complex carbohydrates
How are carbohydrates formed?
Through dehydration synthesis
What are simple sugars?
monosaccharides such as glucose, galactose, fructose, etc.
Monosaccharides
single sugar molecules(Ex: Glucose)
Disaccharides
compound made by 2 simple sugars(Ex: sucrose)
What are complex carbohydrates?
(aka polysaccharides) large macromolecules formed from Monosaccharides
Examples of complex carbohydrates
starch, glycogen, cellulose
Starch
formed when glucose molecules join together in long chains
Isomer
Elements with the same number/type of atoms, but different chemical formulas -> therefore they have different shapes and functions
Glycogen
(aka animal starch) long chains of glucose where animals store excess sugar.
Cellulose
structural polysaccharides that give plants their strength and rigidity
What are lipids
a large and varied group of biological molecules that is usually not soluble in water. l only macromolecule not made of monomers l fat molecule l can be used to store energy and are an important part of membranes, waterproof coverings, fats, oils,and waxes
How are lipids formed?
Through dehydration synthesis
What are lipids made of?
Made of glycerol and fatty acids (carbon and hydrogen atoms)
Saturated
If there is a maximum number of hydrogen atoms in a lipid -> these lipids are solid at room temperature and are common in land animals
Unsaturated
If there is one carbon-carbon bound in a fatty acid -> these lipids are liquid at room temperature because of the carbon-carbon double bond -> most common in aquatic animals
What is more healthy saturated or unsaturated fats?
Unsaturated bonds
Polyunsatured
If there is more than one carbon carbon double-bond
Why do lipids not dissolve in water?
They are non polar
Nucleic Acids
(aka polynucleotides) macromolecules that store and transmit hereditary information
What are nucleic acids made of?
Contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus -> made from monomers called nucleotides (which in turn consists of three parts)
What are the three different parts of a nucleotide?
Phosphate Group, 5-carbon sugar, and nitrogenous base
How are nucleic acids formed?
when nucleotides covalently bond
How many types of nucleic acids are there?
2
What are the different types of nucleic acids?
RNA (ribonucleic acids) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acids)
How are nucleic acids formed?
Through dehydration synthesis
What are the nitrogenous bonds held together by?
Hydrogen Bonds
Proteins
functional macromolecules that contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (one of the most diverse kind of macromolecules)
What are proteins made of?
monomers -> amino acidsamino acids assembled into polypepdite chains
Amino Acids
compounds with an amino group (-NH2) on one end, a carboxyl group (-COOH) on the other end, a carbon atom in the center, a hydrogen atom on one side, and an R-group on the other
How are amino acids bonded together?
covalently bonded through bonds called pepdite bonds
Polypepdite
formed when MANY amino acids pepdite bond
What do proteins do?
Some proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes; others form important cellular structures; others transport substances into or out of cells to help or fight disease
More than ___ different amino acids are found in nature
20
Examples of amino acids found in nature
enzymes, hormones
How are the polypepdite chains in proteins assembled?
According to instructions in DNA
How many levels of organization does an amino acid have?
4
What are the levels of structure of an amino acid?
structure of an amino acid?
How many ways can polypepdite chains coil/fold and what are they?
in a zig-zag way and in curly way(look at notes)
The ___ of an amino acid always stays the same while the ___ changes
backbone (which consists of the carboxyl group, amino group, carbon atom, and hydogen atom); R-Group
All amino acids are identical except for at the ___
R -Group (which all are unique because they can be polar, nonpolar, acidic, basic, etc.)
What causes amino acids ability to bond?
Any amino acid can form to any carboxyl group because they are all the same
How are amino acids formed?
Through dehydration synthesis
Dehydration Synthesis
to put together macromolecules by losing water. This is possible because by losing H20 you are linking two monomers together(look at model in notebook)
Hydrolysis (Digestion)
to separate with the addition of water. This is possible because when water is added to a large organic molecule, one monomer will take the OH- and the other will take the H+, creating two monomers.
Mass number
total number of protons and neutrons in nucleus
Difference between deoxyribose and ribose
deoxy has one less oxygen molecule
DNA bases
A G C T
RNA bases
A G C U
What is the main function of proteins?
they don’t have one
Carbohydrates molecules
C H O
Lipids molecules
C H O
Proteins molecules
C H O N
Nucleic Acids molecules
C H O N P
Water chemical formula
H2O
Water is a neutral molecule(True or False)
TRUE
Polar Molecule
A molecule in which the charges are unevenly distributed;(Charges written parentheses (+) or (-) to show that the charges are weaker than ions) polar molecules attract each other because of their slight negative and positive charge
Why are water molecules considered polar molecules?
Water molecules are considered polar molecules because they consist of one oxygen atom (that has a stronger pull because it has more protons in the nucleus) and two hydrogen atoms (which have a weaker pull because it has less protons in its nucleus) This causes the oxygen molecule to get more electrons than the hydrogen atoms in the covalent bond, causing the oxygen molecule to have a slightly negative charge and the hydrogen molecules to have a slightly positive charge.
Hydrogen Bonding
Attraction of water molecules because of the slightly negative and positive charges of a water molecule; not as strong as covalent or ionic bonds (temporary)
What are the most common atoms involved in hydrogen bonding?
Oxygen, nitrogen, and fluorine
Cohesion
attraction between molecules of the same substance -> always through hydrogen bonds; creates a surface tension which allows some insects to walk on water(Ex:water molecules)
Adhesion
attraction between molecules of different substances -> always through hydrogen bonds(Ex: water molecules and glass molecules)
Capillary Action
One of the forces that draws water out of the roots of a plant and up into its stems and leaves. This is a combination of cohesion (which holds the water molecules together) and adhesion (which causes the water to rise)
Heat Capacity
the amount of heat energy required to increase an object’s temperature
Heat Capacity of Water
Water has a high temperature because it is highly cohesive. This means that the heat energy needs to break multiple hydrogen bonds before the heat spreads. (water needs to absorb more heat before it rises in temperature)
Mixture
a material composed of two or more elements or compounds that are physically mixed together, but not chemically combined.
Types of mixtures
Solutions and Suspensions
Solution
a mixture in which all components are evenly distributed(Ex: salt dissolving in warm water)
Suspension
mixtures of water and non dissolved material(Ex: our blood is mostly water and suspended cells)
Solute
the substance that is dissolved
Solvent
the substance in which the solute dissolves
ph Scale
system used to indicate the concentration of H+ (hydrogen) ions in a solution. This system ranges from 0-14; below 7 the ph is acidic, at 7 the ph is neutral, above 7 the pH is basic.the pH scale is logarithmic meaning each step represents a factor of 10 difference
Base
(aka proton acceptors) a compound that produces OH- (hydroxide) ions in a solution; pH above 7
Why are bases known as proton acceptors?
Bases are known as proton acceptors because they attract H+ ions to create water.(look at example in notebook)
Buffer
weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden change in pH. -> extremely important for maintaining homeostasis because enzymes can only operate under certain conditions
Acid
(aka proton donors)any compound that forms H+ (hydrogen) ions in a solution -> compounds that are acidic are corrosive and break down other compounds; pH below 7
Why are acids considered proton donors?
Acids are considered proton donors because they give off H+ ions. These hydrogen ions are considered protons because to become an ion they need to get rid of the one electron in there valence shell.
One Universal Solvent
water
What can water dissolve/Why is it known as a universal solvent?
ionic compounds, other polar molecules
How does water dissolve compounds?
water molecules are attracted to positive/negative charge of other molecules (because of its bent shape) and pulls them apart, forming new compounds
What does water expand upon freezing?
Because when water drops in temperature, the hydrogen bonds push the H20 molecules farther apart from each other increasing the intermolecular space, making it less dense than the water
Atom
basic unit of matter; made of smaller subatomic particles
Subatomic particles that make up an atom
Protons, neutrons, electrons
What makes up an atom?
Nucleus, electrons, protons, neutrons, empty space, electron shells, valence
Proton
positively charged particles
Neutron
Particles with no charge
What makes up the nucleus of an atom
Protons and neutrons
What is the charge of an atom
neutral
Strong nuclear force
for that holds the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom together
What takes up 99% of the mass of an atom
Nucleus
Where is the nucleus of an atom located
center of an atom
How do you measure the mass of the nucleus of an atom?
With atomic mass units (A.M.U) or daltons
One proton/neutron are equal to?
1 AMU (or dalton)
Electron
Negatively charged particle with 1/1840 mass of a proton. Electrons are in constant motion in the space surrounding the nucleus because they are attracted to the positive charge of the protons but do not bond with them because of their fast motion.
There are ____ amount of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
an even (usually)
What is the charge of an (most) atom?
Neutral because they have an even amount of electrons and protons.
Electron Cloud
the space in which the electrons are most likely to be around the nucleus. (This uncertainty of where the electrons will be are due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle) fun fact :)
Valence Shell
Outermost shell of an atom; contains valence electrons
Electron shell vs Electron Cloud
Electron Shell - used to visualize where electrons are, and how many are on each levelElectron Clod - describes location and energy of electrons
Element
pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom.
More than ___ elements are known but only about ____ are commonly found in living organisms
100; 24
How are elements written?
One or two letter symbols (Na, H)
Atomic Number
amount of protons in the nucleus; written bottom left
Isotope
Elements with differing amounts of neutrons (Carbon-6, Carbon-7,etc.)(Elements can be isotopes of one another)
Mass number
total amount of protons and neutrons (written top left)
How are isotopes identified?
by their mass number
Atomic mass
Average mass of all of the isotopes of a given element
96% of living matter is made of __ elements:
4; nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen
Radioactive Isotope
Isotopes that have a radioactive nuclei, which break down over time because they have a very different amount of neutrons from the original amount
Uses of radioactive isotopes
Can be dangerous, but also used to treat cancer, determine the age of rocks and fossils, kill bacteria, etc.
Compound
a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements, in the same (never changes) proportions
Chemical Formula
shows the composition of compounds (H20, NaCl)
Chemical Bonds
bonds that hold the atoms in compounds together. Formed with the valence electrons
Main types of Chemical Bonds
ionic bonds, covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds
Ionic Bonds
formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.(because one atom has too many valence electrons and needs to give away to get 8 -> gives to atom with less than 8 valence electrons)
Covalent Bonds
formed when electrons are shared by atoms.(because both electrons need 8 valence electrons but not give any away)
Ion
positively or negatively charged atoms
molecule
the smallest unit of most compounds; formed when atoms covalently bond
Van der Waals Forces
When atoms covalently bond to form molecules there is sometimes a charge that forms, (positive or negative) because one atom might have a stronger pull on the electrons being shared than the other atom. This causes molecules to be attracted to one another (if one positive and other negative). This INTERMOLECULAR force is extremely weak.
Octet Rule
Atoms always want an outer layer of 8 valence atoms (reason for bonds)
Single Bond
2 shared electrons
Double Bond
4 shared electrons
Triple bond
6 shared electrons
Important Chemical Formulas
Glucose; Water
Water
H20
Glucose
C6H1206
