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Human Anatomy > Chapter 2 cells > Flashcards

Chapter 2 cells Flashcards

1
Q

Cytology:

A

Study of cells

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2
Q

Types of microscopy

A

Light Microscopy
Transmission electron
scanning electron

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3
Q

Light Microscopy

Transmission electron Microscopy

Scanning electron Microscopy

A

Visible light passes through cell

beam of electrons pass through thin slice of specimen - 2D

beam of electrons bounces off surface of cell - 3D

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4
Q

Which microscopy produces 3-D image?

A

Scanning electron

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5
Q

Cellular functions (8)

A 
covering
lining
storage
movement
connection
defense
communication
reproduction
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6
Q

Cellular functions

lining

A

epithelial cells in small intestine. regulate nutrient movement into body tissues

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7
Q

Cellular functions

covering

A

epidermal cells of skin. protect outer surface

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8
Q

Cellular functions

connection

A

collagen fibers. form ligaments that attach bone-bone

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9
Q

Cellular functions

defense

A

lymphocytes

produce antibodies to target antigens

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10
Q

Cellular functions

storage

A

adipocytes

store lipid reserves

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11
Q

Cellular functions

communication

A

neurons

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12
Q

Cellular functions

movement

A

skeletal muscles

move skeleton

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13
Q

Cellular functions

reproduction

A

bone marrow and sperm/oocytes

produce new blood cells and individuals

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14
Q

Most human cells have three basic parts:

A

plasma membrane
cytoplasm
nucleus

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15
Q

Plasma membrane

A

aka cell membrane

extremely thin, outer border of cell

selective barrier - regulates passage of gases, nutrients, and waste

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16
Q

Plasma membrane

three parts

A

polar head of phospholipid molecule

phospholipid bilayer containing proteins

nonpolar tails of phospholipid molecule

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17
Q

Functions of plasma membrane (4)

A

communication (receptors that recognize and respond to molecular signals)

intercellular connections (flexible boundary, protects cell contents, and supports structure)

physical barrier (phospholipid bilayer separates substances in/outside)

selective permeability (regulates entry/exit)

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18
Q

What is the plasma membrane composed of?

A

lipids and proteins

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19
Q

Lipids of membrane (3)

proteins of membrane (2)

A

Phospholipids
cholesterol
glycoplipids

integral
peripheral

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20
Q

Phospholipids

it is the…
each one has?
what do they do in water?

A

most common lipid in plasma membranes

each has charged head and two uncharged tails

in water, they spontaneously form a bilayer - 2 parallel sheets of phospholipids lying tail to tail.

polar exposed to water with tails facing each other

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21
Q

cholesterol

__ of all membrane lipids
what does it do?

A

20%

strengthens and stabilizes membrane against extreme temps

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22
Q

glycoplipids

___ -____ of all membrane lipids

what does it have?

A

5-10%

have carbohydrate groups attached (sugar groups face outward)

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23
Q

Membrane proteins

  • what are proteins?
  • responsible for___
  • two types of membrane proteins
A

proteins are complex molecules made of amino acid chains

responsible for most membrane functions

integral (embedded)
 and peripheral (not embedded)
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24
Q

integral proteins

embedded in ____
span ____
can have___
have many___

A

embedded in phopholipid bilayer

span entire thickness of membrane (called “transmembrane” and are exposed to inside and outside of cell)

can have carbohydrates (sugars) attached to outer surface = glycoproteins.

many varied functions

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25
Q

___ + ____ form the glycocalyx on external surface of plasma membrane

A

glycoproteins and glycoplipids

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26
Q

Peripheral proteins

not what?
attached where?

A

not embedded in lipid bilayer

loosely attached to external or internal surface of plasma membrane

many varied functions

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27
Q

Protein-Specific Functions of Plasma Membrane

A 
Transport
Intercellular connection
Anchorage for the cytoskeleton
Enzyme (catalytic) activity
Cell–cell recognition
Signal transduction
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28
Q

Transport Across the Plasma Membrane

membrane permeability is influences by several factors (6)

A 
Transport proteins
Plasma membrane structure
Concentration gradient
Ionic charge
Lipid solubility
Molecular size
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29
Q

Transport Across the Plasma Membrane

2 general types of membrane transport

A

passive and active

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30
Q

Passive transport

does not___
materials move___
__ and ____

A

does not require cellular energy

materials move down their concentration gradient

diffusion and filtration

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31
Q

active transport

requires:
materials are:
___ and ____

A

requires energy (ATP) from the cell

materials are moved against their concentration gradients or in large quantities

pumping and bulk transport

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32
Q

Passive transport

includes:

A

simple diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion
bulk filtration

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33
Q

simple diffusion

A

small, nonpolar molecules move down concentration gradient

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34
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water

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35
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

transport proteins help move molecules across membrane

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36
Q

bulk filtration

A

hydrostatic pressure pushes substances across membrane.

liquids (solvents) and dissolved molecules (solutes) are transported.

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37
Q

Active transport

requires?
includes?

A

requires energy in form of ATP

includes ion pumps pushing ions against their concentration gradients

also includes bulk transport

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38
Q

active transport pump example

A

sodium potassium pump

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39
Q

bulk transport

what does it do?
includes?

A

bulk transport moves large molecules or bulk structures across a plasma membrane

exocytosis and endocytosis

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40
Q

exocytosis

A

materials packages into vesicles and secreted out of cell when vesicles fuse with plasma membrane

41
Q

Endocytosis

A

materials are taken into the cell, packaged into vesicles,

42
Q

Three forms of endocytosis

A

Phagocytosis
pinocytosis
receptor-mediated endocytosis

43
Q

Phagocytosis

A

nonspecific uptake of particles by formation of membrane extensions (pseudopodia) that surround and engulf particles

44
Q

Pinocytosis

A

nonspecific uptake of extracellular fluid

45
Q

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

engulfing of specific molecules bound to receptors on the plasma membrane

46
Q

Cytoplasm

includes all materials between __ and ___

1.
2.
3.

A

plasma membrane and nucleus

cytosol
inclusions
organelles

47
Q

Cytosol

a __ __ containing __ and many dissolved substances such as:

-
-
-
-
-
-
A 
A viscous fluid containing water and many dissolved substances, such as:
Ions
Nutrients
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Other small molecules
48
Q

inclusions

are chemical such as:

A

Some cells store inclusions in their cytosol

Inclusions are chemicals such as:

  1. Pigments (e.g., melanin in skin cells)
  2. Nutrient stores (e.g., glycogen in muscle cells; triglycerides in fat cells)
  3. Protein crystals
49
Q

organelles

two types

A

membrane bound and non

50
Q

membrane bound organelles

A 
endoplasmic reticulum
golgi
lysosomes
peroxisomes
mitochondria
51
Q

non-membrane bound organelles

A 
ribosomes
cytoskeleton
centrosomes
centrioles
cilia
flagella
microvilli
52
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

what is it?
two types?

A

network of intracellular membrane bound organelles

enclosed spaces are cisternae

smooth and rough

53
Q

Smooth ER
What is it?
functions?

A

smooth due to lack of ribosomes

continuous with rough ER

it performs synthesis, transport, storage of lipids; metabolism of carbs; detox of drugs, alcohol and poison

54
Q

Rough ER

why is it rough?

RER receives ____ from ribosome

A

rough because of attachment of ribisomes outside membrane

RER receives newly synthesized proteins from ribosome

-proteins will be secreted, inserted into plasma membrane or included in lysosome

55
Q

RER modifies __ and __ them into transport vesicles

A

modifies the proteins and packages them into transport vesicles

56
Q

Cells that perform lots of ___ have lots of RER and extensive golgi

A

secretion (pancreas cells)

57
Q

Golgi Apparatus

what does it do?

stacked cisternae’s lateral edges …

A

receives material from ER for modification, sorting, and packaging

Stacked cisternae’s lateral edges bulge, pinch off, and give rise to small transport and secretory vesicles

  • -Receiving region is the cis-face
  • -Shipping region is the trans-face
58
Q

Functions of Golgi

A
  1. modification- modifies new proteins
  2. packaging - packages enzymes
  3. sorting - sorts all materials for lysosomes
59
Q
  1. __ ___synthesizes protein that is released in a transport vesicle.
  2. Vesicle from the rough ER moves to the __ ___
  3. Vesicle fuses with __ __at the receiving region.
  4. ___ are modifies as they move through Golgi apparatus (e.g., addition of carbohydrate).
  5. __ __ are packaged and released within secretory vesicle from the shipping region.
  6. Secretory vesicle merge with the __ ___ to insert molecules into the plasma membrane. or release contents by __. They may also serve as ___.
A
  1. Rough ER
  2. golgi
  3. golgi
  4. proteins
  5. modified proteins
  6. plasma membrane
    exocytosis
    lysosomes
60
Q

Protein flow through golgi

  1. Proteins synthesized in __ packaged into transport vesicles
  2. Transport vesicles pinch off from RER and fuse with _____
  3. Proteins move between and are modified in the ___
  4. Modified proteins are packaged in___
  5. Secretory vesicles either undergo __, __, or ___
A
  1. RER
  2. receiving face of Golgi apparatus
  3. cisternae of Golgi apparatu
  4. cisternae of Golgi apparatus
  5. exocytosis, become parts of plasma membrane, or become lysosomes
61
Q

lysosomes

-Vesicles generated by ___

Contain enzymes used to ____

When a cell is dying it release ___ that digest the cell (autolysis)

A
  • Vesicles generated by Golgi apparatus
  • Contain enzymes used to digest and remove waste products and damaged organelles within the cell (autophagy)
  • When a cell is dying it releases lysosomal enzymes that digest the cell (autolysis)
62
Q

Functions of lysosomes

3

A
  1. Digestion: Digest all materials that enter cell by endocytosis
  2. Removal: Remove worn-out/damaged organelles and cellular components; recycle small molecules for resynthesis
  3. Self-destruction: Digest the remains after cellular death
63
Q

Peroxisomes

Sacs formed by ___

___ than lysosomes

Use O_2 and catalase to ___

Abundant in __ cells

A

Sacs formed by pinching off from RER
Smaller than lysosomes
Use O_2 and catalase to detoxify harmful molecules in cell
Abundant in liver cells

64
Q

Mitochondria

Function to produce __

Cells that require more energy (e.g., muscle cells) have ____

A

Function to produce ATP

Cells that require more energy (e.g., muscle cells) have more mitochondria

65
Q

function of mitochondria

A

energy synthesis - produce ATP by cellular respiration. the powerhouse

66
Q

Ribosomes

  1. Comprised of a __ and __
  2. Responsible for ___
  3. Free ribosomes float in the ___
  4. Fixed ribosomes are attached to ___
A

Comprised of a large and small subunit
Responsible for protein synthesis
Free ribosomes float in the cytosol
Fixed ribosomes are attached to RER

67
Q

Cytoskeleton

  1. Proteins organized in the cytosol as __ or ___
  2. Three cytoskeletal components:
A

Proteins organized in the cytosol as solid filaments or hollow tubes

Three cytoskeletal components:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules

68
Q

Microfilaments

Composed of __ __intertwined in helical strands

__ and ___ cell shape

Participate in__ and ___

A

Composed of actin proteins intertwined in helical strands

Maintain and change cell shape

Participate in muscle contraction and cell division

69
Q

Microtubules

  1. Composed of tubulin ___
  2. Radiate from __
  3. Many functions, including:
    Fix __ in place
    Maintain cell __ & __
    Direct __ of organelles in the cell
    Allow cell ___
    Move __ during cell division
A
  1. Composed of tubulin protein
  2. Radiate from centrosome
  3. Many functions, including:
    - -Fix organelles in place
    - -Maintain cell shape and rigidity
    - -Direct movement of organelles in the cell
    - -Allow cell motility (in cilia and flagella)
    - -Move chromosomes during cell division
70
Q

Cytoskeleton functions

3

A

Structural support and organization of cell

Cell division

Movement

71
Q

Centrosome and Centrioles

Centrosome:
Nonmembranous, spherical structure adjacent to __
Contains pair of ___ at right angles to each other

Centriole:
Nine sets of __ __
Involved in __ microtubules
Attached to chromosomes during cell division causing ___

A

Centrosome:
Nonmembranous, spherical structure adjacent to nucleus
Contains pair of centrioles at right angles to each other

Centriole:
Nine sets of microtubule triplets
Involved in organizing microtubules
Attached to chromosomes during cell division causing chromosomal migration

72
Q

Centrosome and Centrioles

functions -2

A

Microtubule support

Cell division

73
Q

Cilia and Flagella

Projections from cell containing cytoplasm and microtubules capable of __

Cilia

Flagella

A

Projections from cell containing cytoplasm and microtubules capable of movement

Cilia
On exposed surfaces of certain cells; move objects across their surface

Flagella
Longer than cilia, and usually singular; used to propel a cell

74
Q

Microvilli

Tiny projections from __ __

Not capable of ___

Increase surface area for __

A

Tiny projections from plasma membrane

Not capable of motion

Increase surface area for membrane transport

75
Q

Nucleus

__ __ for cellular activity

Three main parts:

A

Control center for cellular activity

Three main parts: nuclear envelope, nucleoli, chromatin

76
Q

Nucleus functions

2

A

Cellular regulation: Houses genetic material

Production: Produces ribosomal subunits in nucleolus and exports them into cytoplasm for assembly into ribosomes

77
Q

Nuclear Envelope

__ __ structure

Controls ____ from nucleus and cytoplasm

Outer membrane is ___

Nuclear pores are __ __channels that allow specific molecules in and out of nucleus

A

Double membrane structure

Controls entry and exit of molecules from nucleus and cytoplasm

Outer membrane is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum

Nuclear pores are selectively permeable channels that allow specific molecules in and out of nucleus

78
Q

Nucleoli

  • Dark-staining bodies within the __
  • Composed of:
  • Responsible for making components of small and large units of ___
A
  • Dark-staining bodies within the nucleus
  • Composed of RNA, enzymes, and various proteins
  • Responsible for making components of small and large units of ribosomes
79
Q

The nucleus houses ___, a complex molecule containing genetic material

When the cell is not dividing, DNA and associated proteins exist as fine filaments of ___

During cell division chromatin coils tightly to form ___

___ winds around histone proteins to form nucleosomes

A

The nucleus houses deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a complex molecule containing genetic material

When the cell is not dividing, DNA and associated proteins exist as fine filaments of chromatin

During cell division chromatin coils tightly to form chromosomes

DNA winds around histone proteins to form nucleosomes

80
Q

Life cycle of cell has two phases:

A

interphase and mitotic phase

81
Q

interphase

  • __ phase
  • Normal ___ activities
  • May prepare for a future cell ___
A

time between divisions

  • Maintenance (resting) phase
  • Normal metabolic activities
  • May prepare for a future cell division
82
Q

mitotic phase

Division produces:

A

division for growth or cell replacement

Division produces two identical daughter cells

83
Q

Most cells spend majority of their lives in____

A

Most cells spend majority of their lives in interphase

84
Q

Interphase has three stages

A

G1, S, G2

85
Q

G1 phase

A

Cells grow, produce organelles and proteins

Near end of G_1, cells replicate centrioles for future division

Nondividing cells (e.g., neurons) never finish G_1 – they remain arrested in G_0

86
Q

S phase

A

“Synthesis” phase where DNA replicates in preparation for cell division

87
Q

G2 phase

A

Centriole replication is completed

Organelles and enzymes needed for cell division are produced

88
Q

Interphase

Synthesis of cellular components needed for ____, including ____

A

Synthesis of cellular components needed for cell division, including synthesis of DNA.

89
Q

Mitotic phase

Mitotic phase produces two ____ that are ____ to the original (parent) cell

Two events occur in mitotic phase:
1.
2.

A

Mitotic phase produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the original (parent) cell

Two events occur in mitotic phase:

  1. Mitosis: Division of the nucleus
  2. Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm
90
Q

what are the mitosis stages?

A

prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase

91
Q

prophase

  • Chromatin supercoils forming ___
  • Duplicate, identical sister chromatids are joined at ____
  • Elongated microtubules called ___ grow from each centriole
  • The end of prophase is marked by ____
A
  • Chromatin supercoils forming chromosomes
  • Duplicate, identical sister chromatids are joined at centromere
  • Elongated microtubules called spindle fibers grow from each centriole
  • The end of prophase is marked by dissolution of nuclear envelope
92
Q

prophase cont’d

  • Replicated chromosomes appear due to ____
  • ____ breaks down.
  • _____ begin to form from centrioles.
  • Centrioles move toward ___.
  • _____ breaks down at the end of this stage.
A
  • Replicated chromosomes appear due to coiling of chromatin.
  • Nucleolus breaks down.
  • Spindle fibers begin to form from centrioles.
  • Centrioles move toward opposing cell poles.
  • Nuclear envelope breaks down at the end of this stage.
93
Q

metaphase

  • Chromosomes…
  • ____ attach to centromeres of chromosomes, and form an oval structure called the ____
A
  • Chromosomes line up along equatorial plate

- Spindle fibers attach to centromeres of chromosomes, and form an oval structure called the mitotic spindle

94
Q

metaphase

  • Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes extending from the ___.
  • Replicated chromosomes are ____ of the cell by spindle fibers
A
  • Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes extending from the centrioles.
  • Replicated chromosomes are aligned at the equatorial plate of the cell by spindle fibers
95
Q

anaphase

Spindle fibers pull…

A

Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids apart to opposite ends of the dividing cell

96
Q

anaphase

Centromeres that held sisters chromatids together ____; each sister chromatid is now a…

Single chromosomes move toward …

A

Centromeres that held sisters chromatids together separate; each sister chromatid is now a single chromosome with its own centromere.

Single chromosomes move toward opposite ends of the cell.

97
Q

telophase

____form around each set of chromosomes

Chromosomes begin to ___ and ____ disappears

____appears as cytoplasm divides

A

Nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes

Chromosomes begin to uncoil and mitotic spindle disappears

Cleavage furrow (indentation) appears as cytoplasm divides

98
Q

telophase

Single chromosomes uncoil to form ___.

A ___ reforms within each nucleus.

____ break up and disappear.

New ____ forms around each set of chromosomes.

___ continues as cleavage furrow deepens.

A

Single chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin.

A nucleolus reforms within each nucleus.

Spindle fibers break up and disappear.

New nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.

Cytokinesis continues as cleavage furrow deepens.

99
Q

Cells can die in two general ways:

1.
2.

A

Necrosis: Irreversible damage via harmful agents or mechanical damage
Apoptosis: Programmed cell death

Human Anatomy (11 decks)

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