Chapter 2 Flashcards
Theory
coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data
Hypotheses
possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research
Tabula Rasa
literally, a “blank slate”; philosopher John Locke’s view that society influences the
development of the child – this is a reactive view as children react to the environment
Mechanistic Model (Reactive)
views development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli – people are life machines that react to environmental input
Organismic Model (Active)
views development as internally initiated by an active organism and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages
Continuous Development
development is gradual and incremental
Discontinuous Development
development is abrupt or uneven
Quantitative Change
changes in number or amount,
such as in height, weight, size of vocabulary, or frequency of communication
Qualitative Change
discontinuous changes in kind,
structure, or organization
Stage Theories
view that development occurs in a series of distinct stages, like stairsteps
Psychoanalytic Perspective
view of human development as shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior
What is Sigmund Freud known for?
Psychosexual Development
Id
part of the personality that governs newborns, operating on the pleasure principle which is the drive to see immediate satisfaction of needs and desires
Ego
part of the personality that represents reason, operating on the reality principle which is finding realistic ways to gratify the id
Superego
part of the personality containing the conscience, incorporating socially approved behavior into the child’s own value system
Psychosexual Development
in Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of childhood personality development in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals
Fixation
in psychoanalysis, an arrest in development that can show up in adult personality
Oral Stage
stage in psychosexual development in which feeding is the main source of sensual pleasure
Anal Stage
stage in psychosexual development in which the chief source of pleasure is moving the bowels
Phallic Stage
stage in psychosexual development in which boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers and girls to their fathers, with aggressive urges toward the same-sex parent, whom they regard as a rival
Oedipus Complex
boy’s sexual
attachment to their mother
Electra Complex
girl’s sexual attachment to their fathers
Latency Stage
stage in psychosexual development in middle childhood; a period of relative emotional calm and intellectual social exploration
Genital Stage
stage in psychosexual development that lasts throughout adulthood, in which repressed sexual urges resurface to flow in socially approved channels
What is Erik Erikson known for?
Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial Development
in Erikson’s eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego or self
Crisis
a major psychosocial challenge that is particularly important during each stage and will remain an issue to some degree throughout the rest of life
Basic Trust vs Basic Mistrust
critical theme of infancy in which the virtue of hope is developed
Learning Perspective
view of human development
that holds that changes in behavior result from experience
or from adaptation to the environment
Learning
a long-lasting change based on experience or adaptation to the environment
Behaviorism
learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior
Associative Learning
the formation of a mental link
between two events
Classical Conditioning
learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the
response
Operant Conditioning
learning based on association of behavior with its consequences
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, the process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the
likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Punishment
in operant conditioning, the process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition
Extinguished
term referring to the return of a
behavior to its original, or baseline, level after removal of
reinforcement
Social Learning Theory
theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models; also called
social cognitive theory
Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura’s term for bidirectional forces that affect development
Observational Learning (Modeling)
learning through watching the behavior of others
Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s updated version
of social learning theory, which puts a greater emphasis on cognitive processes as central to development
Self-efficacy
sense of one’s capability to master challenges and achieve goals – feedback=confidence
Cognitive Perspective
view that thought processes
are central to development
Cognitive-stage Theory
Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations
Organization
Piaget’s term for the creation of
categories or systems of knowledge
Schemes
Piaget’s term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations
Adaptation
Piaget’s term for adjustment to new information about the environment, achieved through
processes of assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation
Piaget’s term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure
Accomodation
Piaget’s term for changes in a
cognitive structure to include new information
Equilibration
Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved
through a balance between assimilation and accommodation
Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky’s theory of how
contextual factors affect children’s development
Collaborative
Vygotsky’s view that children learn through social interaction
Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP)
Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with help
Scaffolding
temporary support to help a child
master a task
Information-processing Approach
approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information
Computational Models
flowcharts that analyze the
specific steps people go through in gathering, storing,
retrieving, and using information
Contextual Perspective
view of human development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context
Bioecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s approach to
understanding processes and contexts of human development that identifies five levels of environmental influence
Microsystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for a setting in which a child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis
Exosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not
contain the child
Mesosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more microsystems
Macrosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for a society’s overall cultural patterns
Chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for effects of time on other developmental systems
Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perespective
view of human development that focuses on evolutionary and
biological bases of behavior
Ethology
study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species
Evolutionary Psychology
application of Darwinian
principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to
individual behavior
Quantitative Research
research that deals with
objectively measurable data
Scientific Method
system of established principles
and processes of scientific inquiry
Qualitative Research
research that focuses on
nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences,
feelings, or beliefs
Population
a group to whom the findings in
research may apply
Sample
group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study
Generalized Sampling
application of results from a sample study to the population as a whole
Random Selection
selection of a sample in such a
way that each person in a population has an equal and
independent chance of being chosen
Random Sample
the result of random selection
Self-reports
Diaries, Visual Techniques, Interviews, Questionnaires
Diary
a log or record of activities
Parental Self-reports
diaries, journals, interviews,
or questionnaires of children’s activities, kept by the parents of young children
Interview
method in which researchers ask questions about attitudes, opinions, or behavior
Structured Interview
an interview in which each
participant is asked the same set of questions
Open-ended Interview
a flexible interview method
in which the interviewer can vary the topics and order of
questions and can ask follow-up questions based on the
responses
Questionnaire
printed questions that participants fill out and return
Naturalistic Observation
research method in which
behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention
or manipulation
Laboratory Observation
research method in which
all participants are observed under the same controlled
conditions
Observer Bias
the researcher’s tendency to interpret data to fit expectations or to emphasize some aspects and minimize others
Valid Test
a test that measures the abilities it claims to measure is said to be valid
Reliable Test
a test that provides consistent results from one testing to another is reliable
Standardized Test
a test that is given and scored by the same methods and criteria for all test-takers is said to be
standardized
Cognitive Neuroscience
study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities
Case Study
study of a single subject, such as an individual or family
Ethnographic Study
in-depth study of a culture,
which uses a combination of methods including participant observation
Participant Observation
research method in which
the observer lives with the people or participates in the
activity being observed
Correlational Study
research design intended to
discover whether a statistical relationship between
variables exists
Correlation
a statistical relationship between two or more variables
Variables
phenomena that change or vary among people or that can be varied for purposes of research
Positive Correlation
variables that are related,
increase or decrease together
Negative Correlation
variables have an inverse
relationship; as one increases, the other decreases
Experiment
rigorously controlled, replicable
procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other
Replicate
repeating an experiment in exactly the same way with different participants to verify the results and conclusions
Experimental Group
in an experiment, the group
receiving the treatment under study
Treatment
the phenomenon the researcher wants to study
Control Group
in an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not
receive the treatment under study
Treatment Groups
in an experiment, groups that
each receive one of the treatments under study
Double-blind Procedure
an experiment in which neither the participants nor experimenters know who is
receiving the treatment
Placebo
in inert treatment
Independent Variable
in an experiment, the
condition over which the experimenter has direct control
Dependant Variable
in an experiment, the condition
that may or may not change as a result of changes in the
independent variable
Operational Definition
a definition stated solely in terms of the operations used to measure a phenomenon
Random Assignment
assignment of participants in
an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group
Confound
contamination of an experiment by unintended differences between the groups
Laboratory Experiment
experiment in which the
participants are brought to a special place where they
experience conditions manipulated by the experimenter
Field Experiment
a controlled study conducted in an everyday setting, such as home or school
Natural Experiment
study comparing people who
have been accidentally “assigned” to separate groups by
circumstances of life (a correlational study)
Cross-sectional Study
study designed to assess age-
related differences, in which people of different ages are
assessed on one occasion
Longitudinal Study
study designed to assess
changes in a sample over time
Sequential Study
study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques
