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SAT II Biology > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

First person to observe and document the living cell

A

Anton van Leeunwenhoek

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2
Q

Developed a microscope to study cork tissue

A

Robert Hooke

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3
Q

Concluded all plants are made of cells

A

Matthias Schleiden

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4
Q

Concluded all animals are made of cells

A

Theodor Schwann

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5
Q

Stated ‘where a cell exists there must be a pre-existing cell’

A

Rudolf Virchow

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6
Q

Modern cell theory states

A

All living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of all organisms, all cells arise from preexisting cells

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7
Q

Most plant/animals cells have diameters between

A

10-100 micrometers (um)

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8
Q

RBCs have a diameter of

A

8 micrometers (um)

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9
Q

Prokaryotes

A

No internal membranes, all bacteria = prokaryotes

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10
Q

Eukaryotes

A

Have a nucleus and are more complex cells, make up every life form other than bacteria (human cells are eukaryotic)

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11
Q

P & E: chromosomes

A

P: contain a single, circular chromosome
E: chromosomes are linear, human cells have 46 in nucleus

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12
Q

P & E: plasmids

A

P: contains plasmids ,
E: doesn’t contain plasmids

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13
Q

P & E : ribosomes

A

P: ribosomes are small

, E: ribosomes are larger

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14
Q

P & E : respiration

A

P: respiration can be aerobic or anaerobic

E : aerobic

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15
Q

P & E : cytoskeletal elements

A

P:cytoskeletal elements, such as microfilaments, are absent
E: c.e. like microfilaments and microtubules are present

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16
Q

P & E: uni- or multi- cellular

A

P: most are unicellular
E: some like euglena and paramecium are single-celled, many are multicellular w/ specialized cell types such as. muscle, blood, skin

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17
Q

P & E : size

A

P: very small; 1-10 um
E: larger: 10-100 um

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18
Q

P & E: cell walls

A

P: most have tough external cell walls
E: most (except plant cells and protists) are surrounded by only a cell membrane

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19
Q

Radioactive dating indicates that the Earth is about

A

4.6 billion years old

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20
Q

All organisms are believed to have descended from a

A

A common ancestral prokaryotic cell about 3.5 billion y/a

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21
Q

Theory of Endosymbiosis

A

Eukaryotic cells containing organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast evolved when free-living prokaryotes took up permanent residence inside other larger prokaryotic cells about 2 billion years ago

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22
Q

Cell’s form is dictated by

A

It’s function

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23
Q

Nucleus contains chromosomes made of DNA that is

A

Wrapped w/ special proteins called histones into a chromatin network

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24
Q

Chromosomes contains genes:

A

Bits of DNA that code for polypeptides

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25
Q

Nucleus is surrounded by a

A
  1. Selectively permeable double membrane that contains pores
  2. pores allow for the transport of large molecules such as RNA out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm
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26
Q

The nucleolus is

A

A region inside the nucleus of a cell that is not dividing

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27
Q

What is synthesized here? (in nucleolus)

A

Components of ribosomes

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28
Q

Nucleoli are not membrane-bound but are

A

Tangles of chromatin and unfinished ribosomes

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29
Q

1 or 2 nucleoli are

A

Commonly visible in a non-dividing cell

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30
Q

Ribosomes are

A

Particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein and are the site of protein synthesis

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31
Q

Ribosomes are suspended

A

Freely in the cytoplasm or bound to endoplasmic reticulum

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32
Q

A cell that produces large amounts of protein

A

Contains millions of ribosomes

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33
Q

ER is a

A

System of membrane channels across the cytoplasm

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34
Q

Rough ER

A
  1. Studded with ribosomes
  2. site of protein synthesis
  3. transport throughout the cytoplasm
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35
Q

Smooth ER

A
  1. Synthesizes steroid hormones+other lipids
  2. connects rough ER to golgi apparatus
  3. detoxifies cell
  4. carb (glycogen) metabolism
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36
Q

Golgi apparatus

A
  1. Lies near nucleus

2. consists of flattened sacs of membranes stacked next to each other and surrounded by vesicles

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37
Q

Golgi apparatus (function)

A
  1. Modifies, stores, and packages substances produced in rough ER
  2. secretes substances to other parts of the cells and cell surface for export to other cells
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38
Q

Lysosome

A
  1. A sac of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes enclosed by a single membrane
  2. main site of intracellular digestion
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39
Q

With the help of the lysosome, the cell

A

Continually renews itself by breaking down and recycling cell parts

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40
Q

Apoptosis is critical to

A
  • Embryonic development of multicellular organisms

- is carried out by a cell’s own hydrolytic enzymes

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41
Q

Plant cell usually

A

Don’t have lysosomes

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42
Q

Mitochondria

A

Site of cellular respiration, all cells have many

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43
Q

A very active cell should have about

A

2500 mitochondria

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44
Q

Mitochondria consist of an

A

Outer double membrane and folded inner membranes called cristae

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45
Q

What is embedded in cristae?

A

Enzymes important to cellular respiration

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46
Q

Mitochondria contain their own

A

DNA and can self-replicate

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47
Q

Vacuoles

A

Single, membrane-bound structures that store substances

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48
Q

Contractile vacuoles Function.

Where are they found?

A

Pump excess water out of the cell

Freshwater protista like (amoeba, paramecium)

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49
Q

Which cells have large central vacuoles for storage?

A

(some specialized human ) fat or adipose cells , plant cells

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50
Q

Vesicles Definition

Where are they found?

A
  1. Tiny vacuoles

2. found in many places in cells including axon of a neuron where they release neurotransmitters into a synapse

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51
Q

Plastids

A

Have a double membrane and are found in plants/algae

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52
Q

3 types of plastids

A

Chloroplasts, leucoplasts, chromoplasts

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53
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Green because they contain chlorophyll, sites of photosynthesis

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54
Q

Chloroplasts have a double outer membrane and an

A

Inner one that forms a series of structures called grana

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55
Q

Grana lie in the

A

stroma

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56
Q

How are chloroplasts like mitochondria?

A

Both contain their own nuclear material and can self-replicate (free-living prokaryotes billions of years ago)

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57
Q

Leucoplasts

A

Colorless and store starch, found in roots like turnips or tubers like potatoes

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58
Q

Chromoplasts

A

Store carotenoid pigments and are responsible for the red-orange-yellow coloring of carrots, tomatoes, etc.

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59
Q

How are bright pigments in petals useful?

A

Attract pollinating insects to flowers

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60
Q

Cytoskeleton

A
  1. A complex network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm
  2. gives cells its shape/enables it to move
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61
Q

2 types of structures in cytoskeleton:

A

Microtubules, microfilaments

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62
Q

Microtubules

A

Thick hollow tubes that make up cilia, flagella, and spindle fibers → formed from protein tubulin

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63
Q

Microfilaments enable

A
  1. Animal cells to form a cleavage furrow during cell division
  2. amoeba to move by sending out pseudopods,
  3. skeletal muscles to contract by sliding along myosin filaments
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64
Q

Centrioles and centrosomes

Location + Function

A
  1. Outside nuclear membrane

2. organize spindle fibers required for cell division

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65
Q

Which cells have centrioles/centrosomes?

A

Animal cells

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66
Q

Plants cells have

A

Microtubule organizing regions instead

67
Q

2 centrioles at right angles

A

Make up one centrosome

68
Q

Centrioles and spindle fibers have

A

The same structure

69
Q

Cilia and flagella have

A

The same internal structure, both are made of microtubules

70
Q

The difference between the 2 is

Cilia and flagella

A

Their lengths , cilia = short, flagella = long

71
Q

Cell wall of fungi consist of? Of plant and algae?

A

Chitin, cellulose

72
Q

Where is the primary cell wall located in plant cells?

A

Immediately outside the plasma membrane

73
Q

Some cells produce a

A

Second cell wall underneath the primary cell wall called the secondary cell wall

74
Q

What happens when a plant cell divides?

A

A thin gluey layer is formed between the 2 cell walls, which becomes the middle lamella and keeps the 2 daughter cells attached

75
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Entire region between the nucleus and plasma membrane

76
Q

Cytosol

A

Refers to the semiliquid portion of the cytoplasm

77
Q

In eukaryotic cells, organelles are suspended in the

A

Cytosol and get carried around the cell as the cytoplasm cycle around the cell, a process called cyclosis

78
Q

Plasma membrane is described as a

A

Fluid mosaic because it is made of many small particles that are able to move around in order ot control what enters and leaves the cell

79
Q

What molecules are embedded within the membrane?

A

Molecules of cholesterol make the membrane less fluid and more stable

80
Q

What is attached to the surface of the plasma membrane?

A

Carb chains that are important for cell-cell recognition

81
Q

An average cell membrane consists of

A

About 60% protein , provide a wide range of functions

82
Q

Some membrane proteins like ______ act as an enzyme.

A

ATP synthetase

83
Q

Some, like ________, transport ions into and out of cells.

A

Sodium-potassium pump

84
Q

Animal vs. Plant Cells: centrioles/centrosomes

A

A: contain them , P: none

85
Q

Animal vs. Plant Cells: chloroplast/plastids

A

A: no chloroplast and other plastids, P: contain both

86
Q

Animal vs. Plant Cells: vacuoles

A

A: most have small vacuoles (specialized fat storage cells are an exception) ,
P: large central vacuoles

87
Q

Animal vs. Plant Cells: plasma membrane

A

A: plasma membrane only
P: cell walls+plasma membrane

88
Q

Animal vs. Plant Cells: lysosomes

A

A: have them , P: don’t have them

89
Q

The substances that pass through a selectively permeable membranes

A

Change with the needs of a cell

90
Q

Solvent

A

Substance that does the dissolving

91
Q

Solute

A

The substance that dissolves

92
Q

Hypertonic

A

Have greater concentration of solute than another solution

93
Q

Hypotonic

A

Have lower concentration of solute than another solution

94
Q

Isotonic

A

2 solutions containing equal concentrations of solute

95
Q

Passive transport

A

Movement of molecules down a concentration gradient from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

96
Q

Passive transport NEVER

A

Requires energy, occurs either by diffusion or osmosis

97
Q

Simple diffusion

A

movement of particles from higher to lower concentration

98
Q

The steeper the gradient, the

A

Faster the rate of diffusion

99
Q

How do earthworms breathe?

A

Oxygen from the air is absorbed by simple diffusion across their moist skin into capillaries directly beneath the skin

100
Q

How do humans obtain oxygen?

A

By simple diffusion across moist membranes in air sacs, alveoli

101
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Relies on special protein membrane channels to assist in transporting specific substances across a membrane

102
Q

The normal functioning of a neuron requires calcium ions

A

To be transported by facilitated diffusion through calcium ion channels within the axon membrane

103
Q

Facilitated diffusion does

A

Not require ATP/energy

104
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water across a membrane, water flows down a gradient toward a region w/ high solute concentration

105
Q

Water diffuses toward

A

The hypertonic area

106
Q

Plasmolysis

A

Water leaves the cell causing the cell to shrink

107
Q

If 5% sodium chloride is dropped onto a living cell (such as elodea)

A

The cell will shrink

108
Q

When water flow into a cell, this causes an animal cell

A

To burst

109
Q

If water flows into a plant cell,

A

the cell wall will prevent the cell from bursting , plant cells merely swell or become turgid

110
Q

Turgid pressure is what keeps vegetables like

A

Celery or green peppers crisp

111
Q

If a plant loses too much water (dehydrates),

A

It loses turgor pressure and wilts

112
Q

In an isotonic solution, water diffuses in and out

A

But there is no net change in the cell

113
Q

Why must solutions for contacts or saline solutions be isotonic?

A

To protect delicate body cells to prevent damage

114
Q

Active transport

A

The movement of molecules against a gradient, which requires energy, usually in the form of ATP

115
Q

The contractile vacuole pumps out excess water that

A

Diffuses inward because the organisms live in an environment that is hypotonic

116
Q

Exocytosis

A

The active release of molecules from a cell

117
Q

A good example of exocytosis is found in the

A

Synapse of nerve cells

118
Q

Example of exocytosis in synapse cells: Vesicles containing a neurotransmitter such as ACh

A

Release their contents into the synapse in order to pass an impulse to another cell

119
Q

Endocytosis

A

cells take in molecules and particles by forming new vesicles made from the plasma membrane

120
Q

3 examples of endocytosis are

A

Pinocytosis, phagocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis

121
Q

Pinocytosis

A
  1. ‘Cell-drinking’,

2. absorption of large, dissolved molecules

122
Q

In pinocytosis: The plasma membrane invaginates around tiny

A

Particles and encloses them in a vesicle

123
Q

Phagocytosis

A

The engulfing of large particles or even small organisms by pseudopods

124
Q

Phagocytosis: The cell membrane wraps around the particles and encloses

A

Them forming a vacuole

125
Q

Phagocytosis: Human white blood cells engulf

A

Bacteria and also the way amoeba feed

126
Q

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

Enables a cell to take up large quantities of very specific substances

127
Q

Receptor-meditated endocytosis: Extracellular substances bind to

A

Specific receptors on the cell membrane and are drawn into the cell into vesicles

128
Q

Receptor mediated endocytosis:This is how body cells

A

absorb cholesterol from the blood

129
Q

What does the sodium-potassium pump (in nerve cells) do?

A

Carries Na+ and K+ across the axon membrane in opposite directions to return the nerve to its resting state after an impulse has passed

130
Q

Life processes all cells must carry out

A

Ingestion, digestion, respiration, transport, regulation, synthesis, excretion, egestion, reproduction, irritability, locomotion, metabolism

131
Q

Ingestion

A

Intake of nutrients

132
Q

Digestion

A

Enzymatic breakdown, hydrolysis, of food so it’s small enough to be assimilated by the body

133
Q

Respiration

A

Metabolic processes that produce energy (ATP) for all life processes

134
Q

Transport

A

Distribution of molecules from 1 part of a cell to another or from one cell to another

135
Q

Regulation

A

Ability to maintain homeostasis

136
Q

Synthesis

A

Combining of small molecules or substances into larger, more complex ones

137
Q

Excretion

A

Removal of metabolic wastes

138
Q

Egestion

A

Removal of undigested waste

139
Q

Reproduction

A

Ability to generate offspring

140
Q

Irritability

A

Ability to respond to stimuli

141
Q

Locomotion

A

Moving from place to place (animal cells only)

142
Q

Metabolism

A

Sum total of all life functions

143
Q

Accurate

A

Correct

144
Q

Precise

A

Exact

145
Q

Main tool for studying cell structure (cytology)

A

Compound microscope

146
Q

Important characteristic of good microscopes

A

Resolution- image clarity

147
Q

Developed the 1st microscope in the 17th century

A

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

148
Q

How do we determine magnification?

A

Magnification of ocular lens(eyepiece) x magnification of objective lens

149
Q

When you use the microscope, the image is

A

Upside down and backward from the actual specimen

150
Q

The higher the magnification, the

A

Darker the field will appear because you are viewing a much smaller area

151
Q

Phase-contrast microscope

A
  1. A light microscope that enhances contrast

2. useful in examining living, unstained cells

152
Q

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
Useful for?
Source of electrons?

A
  1. Useful for studying the interior of cells.

2. a tungsten filament within a vacuum column

153
Q

Drawbacks of TEM

A
  • Tissue is no longer alive after processing
  • preparation of specimens is elaborate
  • TEM is a delicate machine/requires special engineers to maintain it,
  • specimens must be sliced so thin that only a small portion of a tissue sample can be studied at one time
  • machine costs 100s of 1000s of $
154
Q

Specimens observed under the EM are

A

Not alive

155
Q

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

A
  1. Useful for studying the surface of cells,
  2. resulting images have a 3D appearance
  3. specimens are examined after an elaborate process that kills the tissue
156
Q

Ultracentrifuge

A

Enables scientists to isolate specific components of cells in large quantities by cell fractionation

157
Q

Cell fractionation

A
  1. Tissue is mashed in a blender
  2. resulting liquid (homogenate) is spun at high speed in an ultracentrifuge
  3. separated into layers based on diff. In density
158
Q

Freeze Fracture (or freeze-etching)

A

A complex technique used to study details of membrane structure under an electron microscope

159
Q

In freeze fracturing, after preparation, only a

A

Cast of the original tissue is available to examine

160
Q

Tissue culture is a technique

A

Used to study the properties of specific cells in vitro (in lab)

161
Q

Living cells are seeded onto a ….

What is added?

A
  1. Sterile culture medium

2. a variety of nutrients and growth-stimulating factors have been added

162
Q

Different cells require

A

Different growth media

163
Q

Growing cells can be examined

A

Unstained under a phase-contrast light microscope

SAT II Biology (15 decks)

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