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SAT II Biology > Chapter 10 > Flashcards

Chapter 10 Flashcards

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1
Q

Plants include

A

all multi-celled, eukaryotic, photosynthetic autotrophs

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2
Q

Biologists believe that modern, multi-celled plants evolved from

A

the green algae Chlorophyta that lived in fresh water

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2
Q

Biologists believe that modern, multi-celled plants evolved from

A

the green algae Chlorophyta that lived in fresh water

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3
Q

Plants can be classified as

A

bryophytes or tracheophytes

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4
Q

Bryophytes

A

primitive plants that lack vascular tissue

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5
Q

Byrophytes must live in moist environments because

A

they have no roots or xylem and must absorb and transport water by osmosis

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6
Q

Why are bryophates tiny?

A

because they lack the lignin-fortified tissue necessary to support tall plants on land

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7
Q

What do bryophates include?

A

mosses, liverworts, and hornworts

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8
Q

Tracheophytes

A

transport vessels, xylem, and phloem

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9
Q

What do tracheophytes include?

A
  • ancient seedless plants like ferns that reproduce by spores
  • modern plants that reproduce by seeds
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10
Q

Tracheophytes with seeds are further subdivided into

A

gymnosperms

angiosperms

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11
Q

Gymnosperms

A

conifers, the con-bearing plants that produce seeds on the surface of cones

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12
Q

Gymnosperms have various modifications to make them more resistant to

A

wind, cold, and drought

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13
Q

Some of these modifications include

A

needle shaped leaves
a thick and waxy cuticle
stomates located in stomatal crypts to reduce water loss even further

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14
Q

Examples of gymnosperms

A 
cedars
sequoias 
redwoods
pines
yews
junipers
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15
Q

Angiosperms

A

flowering plants in which seeds develop inside ovaries of flowers

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16
Q

Angiosperms: After pollination, the ovary

A

becomes the fruit

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17
Q

Angiosperms are the most diverse and

A

plentiful plants on Earth

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18
Q

Examples of angiosperms

A 
roses
daisies
fruits
nuts
grains
grasses
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18
Q

Examples of angiosperms

A 
roses
daisies
fruits
nuts
grains
grasses
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19
Q

Examples of angiosperms

A 
roses
daisies
fruits
nuts
grains
grasses
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20
Q

Angiosperms are further subdivided into

A

monocotyledons (monocots) and eudicots which include complex flowering plants called dicotyledons (dicots)

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20
Q

Angiosperms are further subdivided into

A

monocotyledons (monocots) and eudicots which include complex flowering plants called dicotyledons (dicots)

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21
Q

Characteristic: Cotyledons (seed leaves)

Monocots vs. Dicots

A

M: one
D: two

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22
Q

Characteristic: vascular bundles in stem

Monocots vs. Dicots

A

M: scattered
D: in a ring around the edge

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23
Q

Characteristic: leaf venation

Monocots vs. Dicots

A

M: parallel
D: netlike

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24
Q

Examples of monocots are the grasses:

A

wheat, corn, oats, lawn grass, and rice

also, palm trees

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25
Q

Monocots provide the

A

food for most of the world

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26
Q

Examples of dicots are

A 
daisies
roses
carrots and most other flowering plants
oak
walnut
cherry and most other trees
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27
Q

The cladogram from plants shows the

A

evolutionary relationships among the four main groups of living plants using the presence or absence of 3 derived traits: vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers

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28
Q

Plants began life in the seas and

A

moved to land as competition for resources increased

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28
Q

Plants began life in the seas and

A

moved to land as competition for resources increased

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29
Q

What are the biggest problems a plant faces on land?

A

supporting a plant body and absorbing and conserving water

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30
Q

Modifications that enable plants to live on land include:

A 
cell walls
roots/root hairs
stomates
cutin
gametes/zygotes/gamentangia
sporopollenin
seeds and pollen
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31
Q

Cell walls made of cellulose support the plant whose cells

A

unsupported by a watery environment, must maintain their own shape

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32
Q

Roots and root hairs absorb

A

water and nutrients from the soil

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33
Q

Stomates open to exchange

A

photosynthetic gases and close to minimize excessive water loss

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34
Q

The waxy coating on the leaves, cutin,

A

helps prevents excess water loss from the leaves

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35
Q

In some plants, gametes and zygotes form within a

A

protective jacket of cells called gametangia that prevents drying out

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36
Q

Sporopollenin is a

A

tough polymer, is resistant to almost all kinds of environmental damage and protects plants in a harsh terrestrial environment

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37
Q

Where is sporopollenin found?

A

in the walls of spores and pollen

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38
Q

Seeds and pollen have a protective

A

coat that prevents desiccation. They are also a means of dispersing offspring

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39
Q

Reduction of primitive gametophyte (n)

A

generation occurs

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39
Q

Reduction of primitive gametophyte (n)

A

generation occurs

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40
Q

Why do plants continue to grow as long as the live?

A

because they have meristem tissue that continually divides, generating new cells

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41
Q

Plants grow in two ways:

A

primary and secondary

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42
Q

Primary growth is

A

vertical , the elongation of the plant down into the soil and up into the air

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43
Q

Primary growth:

new cells arise from the constantly dividing growth layer called the

A

apical meristem which is located at the buds of shoots and the tips of roots

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44
Q

Primary growth:

root growth is concentrated

A

near the root tip

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45
Q

Three zones of cells at different stages of primary growth are located at the root growth:

A

zone of cell division called apical meristem
zone of elongation
zone of differentiation

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46
Q

The root tip is protected by a

A

root cap that secretes a substance that helps digest the earth as the root tip grows through the soil

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47
Q

Zone of cell division contains

A

meristem cells that are actively dividing and are responsible for producing new cells that grow down into the soil

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48
Q

The zone of cell division is the region we observe

A

under the microscope in labs when you were studying cells undergoing mitosis

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48
Q

The zone of cell division is the region we observe

A

under the microscope in labs when you were studying cells undergoing mitosis

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49
Q

Zone of elongation

A

cells in this zone elongate and are responsible for pushing the root cap downward and deeper into the soil

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50
Q

Zone of differentiation

A

cells in this zone undergo specialization into 3 primary meristems that give rise to 3 tissue systems in the plant:

  • the epidermis
  • the ground tissue
  • the xylem and phloem
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51
Q

Secondary growth means

A

lateral growth or an increase in girth

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52
Q

Whats provided by secondary growth?

A

new cells are provided by the lateral meristem

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53
Q

In herbaceous (nonwoody) plants , like vegetables and flowers,

A

there is only primary growth because these plants only live for one season

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53
Q

In herbaceous (nonwoody) plants , like vegetables and flowers,

A

there is only primary growth because these plants only live for one season

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54
Q

Woody plants are protected by

A

bark and live for many years

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55
Q

In woody plants, secondary growth is responsible for the

A

enlargement of the trunk , for each year of growth another ring is added

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56
Q

In woody plants, secondary growth is responsible for the

A

enlargement of the trunk , for each year of growth another ring is added

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57
Q

Roots

A

the function of the roots is to absorb nutrients from the soil, anchor the plant, and store food

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57
Q

Roots

A

the function of the roots is to absorb nutrients from the soil, anchor the plant, and store food

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58
Q

Epidermis

A

covers the entire surface of the root and is modified for absorption

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59
Q

Root hairs

A
  • slender cytoplasmic projections from the epidermal cells

- extend out from each cell and greatly increase the root’s absorptive surface area

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60
Q

Cortex

A

main function is storage

-consists of parenchyma cells

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61
Q

Parenchyma cells that contain

A

many plastids for the storage of starch and other organic substances

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62
Q

Stele

A

the function of this vascular cylinder is transport

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63
Q

Stele consists of

A

vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) surrounded by 1 or more layers of tissue called the pericycle from which lateral roots arise

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64
Q

Endoderm

A

the vascular cylinder is surrounded by a tightly packed layer of cells called the endodermis

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65
Q

What is each endoderm cells wrapped with?

A

Casparian strip, a continuous band of waxy material that is impervious to water and dissolved minerals

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66
Q

Function of endoderm

A

to select what minerals enter the vascular cylinder and the body of the plant

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67
Q

Absorption

A

plants use roots to absorb nutrients/water and then these must be absorbed by the cells themselves

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68
Q

Absorption

A

plants use roots to absorb nutrients/water and then these must be absorbed by the cells themselves

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69
Q

Movement of water and solutes across a plant is called

A

lateral movement

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70
Q

Lateral movement is done along the

A

symplast and apoplast

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71
Q

Symplast

A

continous system of cytoplasm of cells interconnected by plasmodesmata

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72
Q

Apoplast

A

a network of cell walls and intercellular spaces within a plant body that permits extensive extracellular movement of water within a plant

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73
Q

Mycorrhizae

A

supply the plant with water and minerals
-symbiotic structures consisting of the plant’s roots intermingled with the hyphae (filaments) of a fungus that greatly increase the quantity of nutrients that a plant can absorb

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74
Q

Where are mycorrhize located?

A

in mature plants of many species where older regions of roots lack root hairs

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75
Q

Rhizobium

A

a symbiotic bacterium that lives in the nodules on roots of specific legumes
-fixes nitrogen gas from the air into a form of nitrogen the plant requires

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76
Q

Taproot

A

a single, large root that gives rise to lateral branch roots

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77
Q

In many dicots,

A

the primary root is the taproot

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78
Q

Some taproots ‘tap’

Some are modified for

A

water deep in the soil

storage (ex. carrots, beets, turnip)

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79
Q

What does a fibrous root system do?

Where are fibrous root systems found?

A

holds the plant firmly in place

common in monocots like grasses

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80
Q

Why do grasses make fine ground cover?

A

they minimize soil erosion

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81
Q

Adventitious roots

Including 2 examples

A

roots that arise above ground

aerial and prop roots

82
Q

Aerial roots

A

roots that stick up out of the water and serve to aerate the root cells

83
Q

Where are aerial roots found?

A

in trees that grow in swamps or salt marshes like mangroves

84
Q

English ivy has aerial roots that enable

A

the ivy to cling to the sides of buildings

85
Q

Prop roots

A

roots that grow aboveground out from the base of the stem and help support the plant

86
Q

Example of plants with prop roots

A

tall plants like corn

87
Q

Stem

A
  • function = support

- transport water and minerals from the soil and nutrients from the leaves to the rest of the plant

88
Q

Vascular tissue runs the length of the stem in strands called

A

vascular bundles

89
Q

Each vascular bundle contains

A

xylem on the inside
phloem on the outside
meristem tissue between the two

90
Q

The ground tissue of the stem consists of

A

cortex and pith (parenchymal tissues modified for storage)

91
Q

The leaf is organized to

A

maximize sugar production while minimizing water loss

92
Q

Parts of leaf:

epidermis-upper and lower

A

protection

93
Q

Parts of Leaf:

waxy cuticle-made of cutin

A

minimize water loss

94
Q

Parts of leaf:

guard cells-modified epidermal cells, contain chloroplasts

A

control the opening of the stomates

95
Q

Parts of Leaf:

palisade mesophyll-tightly packed

A

photosynthesis

96
Q

Parts of Leaf:

spongy mesophyll-loosely packed

A

photosynthesis

diffusion and exchange of gases into and out of these cells

97
Q

Parts of Leaf:

veins-located in the mesophyll

A

carry water and nutrients from the soil to the leaves and carry sugar, the product of photosynthesis, from the leaves to the rest of the plant

98
Q

Respiration –> CO2 –>

Photosynthesis –> O2 –>

A

Photosynthesis

Respiration

99
Q

When plant cells carry out cellular respiration,

A

they take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide

100
Q

When plant cells carry out photosynthesis

A

they take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen and water vapor

101
Q

Plants exchange these gases between

A

air sacs in the spongy mesophyll and the exterior of the leaf by opening their stomates

102
Q

Transpiration

A

loss of water from the leaf

103
Q

If stomates were kept open all the time

A

the plant would lose so much through transpiration it could not survive

104
Q

How do plants minimize excessive water loss?

A

when the sun is shining brightly and photosynthesis is running at top speed, stomates are open
at night, most plants close their stomates

105
Q

How long must plants keep their stomates open?

A

long enough to allow photosynthesis to take place but not so long that they lose too much water

106
Q

Guard cells

A

modified epithelial cells that control the opening and closing of the stomates in response to changes in water pressure

107
Q

What happens when guard cells absorb water by osmosis?

A

they become turgid, they curve like hot dogs, causing the stomate to open

108
Q

What happens when guard cells lose water?

A

they become flaccid and the stomate closes

109
Q

Plants consist of 3 main tissue types

A

dermal
vascular
ground tissue
an ‘extra’ one is meristem tissue or growth tissue only found in growing tips of shoots and roots

110
Q

Dermal Tissue

A

the outer protective covering of plants and usually consist of a single layer of epidermal cells

111
Q

Some leaves are also covered with tiny, spikelike projections called

A

trichomes, which also protect the leaf

112
Q

For the most part, epidermal cells do not

A

contain chloroplasts and cannot photosynthesize

113
Q

An important exception are guard cells, which are

A

modified epidermal cells that contain chloroplasts and can photosynthesize

114
Q

Vascular Tissue

A

transports water and nutrients up and down the plant

115
Q

2 types of vascular tissue

A

xylem and phloem

116
Q

Xylem

A

consists of tracheids and vessel elements

117
Q

Phloem

A

consists of sieve tube elements and companion cells

118
Q

Ground tissue make up all plant tissue besides

A

dermal and vascular tissue

119
Q

Ground tissue consists of 3 cell types

A

parenchyma, collenchuma, and sclerenchyma

120
Q

Parenchyma cells are the traditional-looking plant cell

A
  • primary cell wall and secondary cell wall
  • cytoplasm contains 1 or 2 large vacuoles
  • when cell is turgid w/ water, cells lend support to the plant
  • these cells are found in in all parts of plant, some contain chloroplast and other don;t
121
Q

Collehnchyma cells

A

have unevely thickened primary cell walls but lack secondary cell walls
‘strings of celery’ consist of collenchyma

122
Q

Sclerenchyma cells have

A

very thick primary and secondary cell walls that are fortified with lignin
-purely for support

123
Q

Xylem and phloem

A

transport water, nutrients, and gases

124
Q

Xylem consists of 2 types of elongated cells

A

tracheids and vessel elements

125
Q

Secondary cell walls of tracheids are hardened with

A

lignin and function to support the plant and transport nutrients and water

126
Q

Xylem makes up

A

wood

127
Q

What is xylem’s role in transport?

A

carries water and nutrients from the soil up to the tallest leaves against gravity with no expenditure of energy

128
Q

How do xylem transport water/nutrients?

A

transpirational pull

cohesion tension

129
Q

Transpiration

A

evaporation of water from leaves

130
Q

Cohesion

A

water molecules are attracted to each other and stick together

131
Q

What does the transpirational pull-cohesion tension theory state?

A

that for each molecule of water that evaporates from a leaf by transpiration, another molecule of water is drawn in in at the root to replace it

132
Q

What drives/causes transpiration?

A

absorption of sunlight

133
Q

What factors affect the rate of transpiration and loss of water from a leaf?

A
  • high humidity slows transpiration, low humidity speeds it up
  • wind can reduce humidity near stomates and thereby increase transpiration
  • increased light intensity increases photosynthesis, thereby increasing both the amount of water vapor to be transpired and the rate of transpiration
  • closing stomates stops transpiration
134
Q

Phloem vessels are made of chains of 2 types of cells:

What do they do?

A

sieve tube elements and companion cells

-carry sugar from photosynthetic leaves to rest of plant by a process called translocation

135
Q

Sugar is stored in the roots, unlike transport in xylem,

A

this process requires energy

136
Q

Plants can reproduce

A

sexually and asexually

137
Q

Plants can clone themselves or reproduce asexually by

A

vegetative propagation

138
Q

Process of vegetative propagation

A

a piece of the vegetative part of a plant, the root, stem, or leaf, produces an entirely new plant genetically identical to the parent plant
examples, grafting, cuttings, bulbs, runners

139
Q

What is the sexual organ of a plant?

A

the flower

140
Q

Parts of the Flower include

A

petals, sepals, pistils/carpels, ovary, ovule, style, stigma, stamen, anther, filament

141
Q

Parts of the Flower:

petals

A

brightly colored, modified leaves found just inside the circle of sepals ; attract animals that will pollinate the plant

142
Q

Sepals

A
  • outermost circle of leaves
  • are green and closely resemble ordinary leaves
  • enclose the bud before it opens and protects the flower while it develops
143
Q

Pistils or Carpels

A

female part of the flower
produce female gametophytes
each consists of an ovary, stigma, and style

144
Q

Ovary

A

swollen part of pistil that contains the ovule, where 1 or more ova are produced by meiosis

145
Q

Ovule

A

structure within the ovary where the ova (female gametophytes) are produced

146
Q

Style

A

long, usually thin stalk of the pistil

147
Q

Stigma

A

sticky top of the style where pollen lands and germinates

148
Q

Stamen

A

male part of the flower, made up of anther and filament

149
Q

Anther

A

male part of the flower where sperm (pollen) are produced by meiosis

150
Q

Filament

A

threadlike structure that supports the anther

151
Q

What does sexual reproduction begin with?

A

pollination

152
Q

Step 1 of Pollination

A

one pollen grain containing 3 haploid nuclei- one tube nucleus and 2 sperm nuclei- lands on the sticky stigma of the flower

153
Q

Step 2 of Pollination

A

the pollen grain absorbs moisture and germinates or sprouts, producing a pollen tube that burrows down the style into the ovary

154
Q

Step 3 of Pollination

A

the 2 sperm nuclei travel down the pollen tube into the ovary

155
Q

Step 4 of Pollination

A

Once inside the ovary, the 2 sperm nuclei enter the ovule through the micropyle

156
Q

Step 5 of Pollination

A

1 sperm nucleus fertilizes the egg and becomes the embryo (2n) and the other sperm nucleus fertilizes the 2 polar bodies and becomes the triploid (3n) endosperm or cotyledon, the food for the growing embryo

157
Q

Double fertilization

A

2 fertilizations occur

157
Q

Double fertilization

A

2 fertilizations occur

158
Q

What happens after fertilization?

A

the ovule becomes the seed and the ripened ovary become the fruit

159
Q

In monocots, food reserves

A

remain in the endosperm

160
Q

In dicots, the food reserves of the endosperm are

A

transported to the cotyledons and consequently, the mature dicot seed lacks endosperm

161
Q

In coconuts, the endosperm is

A

liquid

162
Q

Double fertilization can be seen as:

A
  1. Sperm + Ovum –> Embryo = 2n

2. Sperm + 2 Polar bodies –> cotyledon (food for the growing embryo) = 3n

163
Q

What does a seed consist of?

A

protective seed coat, an embryo, and the cotyledon or endosperm-food for the growing embryo

164
Q

The embryo of the seed consists of the

A

hypocotyl
epicotyl
radicle

165
Q

Hypocotyl
Epicotyl
Radicle of embryonic root

A

becomes the lower part of the stem and the roots
becomes the upper part of the stem
the first organ to emerge from the germinating seed

166
Q

The food source in a monocot is

A

endosperm instead of cotyledon

167
Q

The sexual life cycle of plants is characterized by

A

the alternation of generations in which haploid (n) and diploid (2n) generations alternate with each other

168
Q

What does the gametophyte (n) produce?

A

gametes by mitosis that fuse during fertilization to yield 2n zygotes

169
Q

Each zygote develops into a

A

sporophyte (2n) that produces haploid spores (n) by meiosis

170
Q

Each haploid spore forms a new

A

gametophytes, and the cycle continues

171
Q

Remember:
The gametophyte generation
The sporophyte generation

A

haploid n

diploid 2n

172
Q

Antheridium

A

structure that produces sperm, develops on the gametophytes

173
Q

Archegonium

A

structure that produces eggs, develops on the gametophyte

174
Q

Gametophyte

A

haploid adult plant

175
Q

Megaspores

A

produced by large female cones and will develop into female gametophytes

176
Q

Microspores

A

produced by small male cones and will develop into male gametophytes or pollen grains

177
Q

Protonema

A

branching, 1-celled-thick filaments produced by germinating moss spores, becomes the gametophyte in moss

178
Q

Sporangia

A

located on the tip of the mature sporophyte, where meiosis occurs, producing haploid spores

179
Q

Sporophyte

A

a diploid adult plant

180
Q

Sori

A

raised spots located on the underside of sporophyte ferns, clusters of sporangia

181
Q

Mosses

A

green, carpetlike plants seen growing in damp forests, sometimes on fallen logs
-primitive plants

182
Q

Mosses: The gametophyte generation

A

dominates the life cycle
this means that the organism is haploid (n) for most of its life cycle and the sporophyte (2n) is dependent on the gametophyte

183
Q

Mosses:
Gametophyte obtains
Sporophyte obtains

A

nutrients by photosynthesis

nutrients from the gametophyte

184
Q

The fern is a

A

seedless vascular plant and is intermediate between the primitive bryophytes and the flowering vascular plants

185
Q

In ferns, the sporophyte generation is

A

larger and independent from the gametophyte

186
Q

Ferns

both the gametophyte and the sporophyte

A

sustain themselves by photosynthesis

187
Q

Seed plants are

A

advanced, vascular plants

188
Q

Seed plants are divided into

A

flowering plants and conifers

189
Q

Flowering plants (angiosperms), the gametophyte generation exists inside the

A

sporophyte generation is totally dependent on the sporophyte

190
Q

In a gymnosperm (cone-bearing) like a pine tree,

A

the gaemtophyte generation develops from haploid spores that are retained within the sporangia

191
Q

What do plant hormones do?

A

coordinate growth, development, and response to environmental stimuli

192
Q

Hormones are produced in very small quantities however they have a profound effect because

A

the hormone signal is amplified

193
Q

Plant’s response to a hormone depends on

A

relative amounts not absolute amounts

194
Q

Examples of plant hormones

A 
auxins
cytokinins 
gibberllins
abscisic acid (ABA)
ethylene
195
Q

Auxins enhance

A

apical dominance, the preferential growth of a plant upward (toward the sun) rather than laterally
-terminal buds actually suppresses lateral growth by suppressing development of axial buds

196
Q

How do auxins stimulate stem elongation and growth?

A

by softening the cell wall

197
Q

First plant hormone discovered was auxin.

What is IAA? 2,4-D?

A

Indoleacetic acid is a naturally occuring auxin

2,4-D is used as a wee killer (human made)

198
Q

Auxins are used as rooting powder to

A

develop roots quickly in a plant cutting

199
Q

What results in seedless tomatoes?

A

a synthetic auxin sprayed on tomato plants will induce fruit production without pollination

200
Q

Cytokinins

A

-stimulate cytokinesis and cell division

201
Q

Function on cytokinins

A

they delay senescence (aging) by inhibiting protein breakdown
(florists spray cut flowers with cytokinins to keep them fresh)

202
Q

Gibberellins

A
  • promote stem and leaf elongation

- induce bolting, the rapid growth of a floral stalk

203
Q

When a plant which normally grows close to the ground, enters the reproductive stage,

A

it sends up a very tall shoot on which the flower and fruit develop
-this is to ensure pollination/seed dispersal

204
Q

ABA Abscisic Acid

A
  • inhibits growth and promotes seed dormancy
  • enables plants to withstand drought
  • closes stomates during times of water stress
205
Q

Ethylene

A

this plant hormone is a gas

-promotes ripening, which in turn, triggers increased production of ethylene gas

206
Q

Tropism

A

the growth of a plant toward or away from a stimulus

207
Q

Examples of tropisms

A

thigmotropisms (touch)
geotropisms or gravitropisms (gravity)
phototropisms (light)

208
Q

Positive Tropism vs. Negative Tropism

A

+ –> a growth of a plant toward a stimulus

- –> a growth away from a stimulus

209
Q

Phototropisms result from an

A

unequal distribution of auxins that accumulate on the side of the plant away from the light

210
Q

Since auxins cause growth,

A

the cells on the shady side of the plant enlarge and the stem bends toward the light

211
Q

Geotropisms result from an

A

interaction of auxins and statoliths, specialized plastids containing dense starch grains

SAT II Biology (15 decks)

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