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SAT II Biology > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Name the mass and charge of each subatomic particle

A

proton: +1 , 1 amu
neutron: 0 , 1 amu
electron: -1 , 0

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2
Q

An atom in the elemental state (as an element) always has a neutral charge because

A

the number of protons (+) equals the number of electrons (-)

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3
Q

Why is electron configuration important?

A

it determines how a particular atom will react with atoms of other elements

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4
Q

Explain ground state

A

electrons in the lowest available energy level

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5
Q

Explain excited state

A

when an atom absorbs energy, its electrons move to a higher energy level

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6
Q

Provide an example of atoms in an excited state.

A

During photosynthesis, chlorophyll molecules absorb light energy, which boosts electrons to higher energy levels.
- The excited electrons provide the energy to make sugar as they return to their ground state and release the energy they previously absorbed

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7
Q

Isotopes

A

atoms of 1 element that vary only in the number of neutrons in the nucleus

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8
Q

Chemically, all isotopes of the same element are identical because

A

they have the same number of electrons

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9
Q

Radioisotopes are

A

isotopes that are radioactive, for example, carbon-14

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10
Q

Explain half-life

A

the nuclei of radioisotopes emit particles and decay at a known rate

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11
Q

How can we use half-life?

A

measuring the age of fossils or to estimate the age of Earth

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12
Q

Define tracer.

A

a radioactive substance that can be used to track a substance as it moves through an organism or through a metabolic pathway
-radioactive carbon can be used as a tracer

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13
Q

When a bond is formed, _____

When a bond is broken, ______

A

energy is released

energy must be supplied or absorbed

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14
Q

Ionic bonds

A

form when electrons are transferred

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15
Q

Give examples of ions that are necessary for our health

A

Cl-, Na+, and Ca2+ are important for normal cell, tissue, and organ function

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16
Q

Covalent bonds

A

form when atoms share electrons

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17
Q

What type of bond results in a molecule?

A

a covalent bond

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18
Q

The two types of covalent bonds are _______

What are these classifications based on

A

nonpolar and polar

whether electrons are shared equally or unequally

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19
Q

What are the characteristics of nonpolar covalent bonds?

A

electrons are shared equally
formed between any 2 atoms that are alike
for ex. H2, O2, etc.

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20
Q

What are the characteristics of polar covalent bonds?

A

electrons are shared unequally
formed between any 2 atoms that are unlike
for ex. CO and H2O

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21
Q

Intermolecular attraction are

A

attractions between molecules

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22
Q

Dipole - Dipole forces

Polar-Polar attraction

A

attractive forces between the positive end of 1 polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule

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23
Q

Dipole-dipole bonding can result in

A

either a polar (unbalanced) molecule or nonpolar (balanced)

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24
Q

Which bond has stronger attractions between them? Polar or Nonpolar molecules

A

polar molecules

for ex. water is a highly polar molecule

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25
Q

Hydrogen Bonding

A

a special type of dipole-dipole attraction between molecules to a hydrogen atom

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26
Q

What does a hydrogen bond result from?

A

results from the attractive force between a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom such as a FON molecule
(or another very electronegative atom)

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27
Q

Functions of hydrogen bonding

A
  • keeps the 2 strands of DNA bonded together, forming a double helix
  • causes water molecules to stick together and is responsible for many special characteristics about water
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28
Q

van der Waals bonding

Nonpolar molecules

A

caused by temporary attractions between fluctuating polarization of nearby molecules

  • the weakest attractions
  • ex. CO2, linear and balanced
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29
Q

_______ substances dissolve in water

_______ substances will not dissolve in water

A

polar , nonpolar

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30
Q

Remember: _____ dissolves ____

A

like dissolves like

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31
Q

Why does an open can of soda go flat?

A

since CO2 is a nonpolar molecule and water is polar, CO2 does not dissolve in water
so, when you open a can of soda, the gas escapees and it goes flat

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32
Q

Lipids are _____ and _____ meaning they do not _______ in water. This is why ___ and _____ salad dressing separate.

A

nonpolar, hydrophboic, dissolve

oil, vinegar

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33
Q

What substances can dissolve through the plasma membrane? Which cannot? How do these substances travel?

A
  1. Nonpolar substances can dissolve

2. Large polar molecules cannot unless they are in special hydrophilic (protein) channels

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34
Q

Water is ______. It also has strong ______ attractions and exhibits strong _____ bonding.

A

asymmetrical, intermolecular polar, hydrogen

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35
Q

The 6 characteristics of water are:

A
  1. high specific heat
  2. high heat of vaporization
  3. high adhesion properties
  4. universal solvent
  5. strong cohesion tension
  6. ice floats because it is less dense than water
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36
Q

Large bodies of water, like the ocean ________.
This provides ___________.
Coastal areas exhibit relatively ________.

A
  1. absorb a lot of heat and resist changes in temperature
  2. a stable environment for the organisms that live in them
  3. little temperature change because oceans moderate their climates
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37
Q

A relatively ________ is needed to evaporate water.

Ex. Evaporation of sweat,_______.

A
  1. great amount of heat

2. significantly cools the body surface

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38
Q

What is adhesion and how does it affect plant survival?

A
  1. the clinging of 1 substance to another

2. forces of adhesion contribute to capillary action, which helps water flow up from the roots of a plant to the leaves

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39
Q

Since water is a highly polar molecule, it ________

A

dissolves all polar and ionic substances

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40
Q

Define cohesion tension and explain 2 biological phenomena it causes

A
  1. molecules of water tend to stick to each other
  2. water moves a tall tree from the roots to the leaves without the use of energy by transpirational-pull cohesion tension
  3. surface tension allows insects to walk on water without breaking the surface
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41
Q

In a deep body of water, floating ice __________.

A

insulates the liquid water below it, allowing life to exist beneath the frozen surface during cold seasons.

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42
Q

Explain spring overturn.

A
  1. In spring, ice melts, becomes denser water, and sinks to the bottom of the lake
  2. this causes water to circulate throughout the lake
  3. oxygen from the surface returns to the depths, while nutrients released by the activities of bottom-dwelling bacteria are carried to the upper layers of the lake
  4. this cycling of nutrients in a lake is spring overturn and is necessary to the health of a lake
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43
Q

Define pH

A

a measure of acidity and alkalinity of a solution

-the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in mol/liter

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44
Q

How do we know if a substance is acidic, alkaline, or neutral?

A

acidic- pH less than 7
basic/alkaline- pH greater than 7
neutral- neutral

45
Q

As the concentration of H+ increases, ____________

A

the pH decreases

46
Q

A solution of pH 1 is ______ more acidic than a solution with a pH 2.
and ______ more acidic that pH 3
and _____ more acidic than pH 4

A

10 times
100 times
1000 times

47
Q 
pH vs. molarity
ph 1 --> concentration of H+
ph 2 -->
ph 3--->
ph 4 --->
A

1 x 10^-1 , 0.1 molar
1 x 10^-2 , 0.01 molar
1 x 10^-3 , 0.001 molar
1 x 10^-4 , 0.0001 molar

48
Q

pH of stomach acid

A

2

49
Q

pH of orange juice

A

3.5

50
Q

pH of carbonated drinks

A

3.0

51
Q

pH of acid rain

A

<5.6

52
Q

pH of milk

A

6.5

53
Q

pH of human blood

A

7.4

54
Q

pH of seawater

A

8.5

55
Q

The internal pH of most living cells is _____.

Even a slight change _______.

A

close to 7

can be harmful

56
Q

How do biological systems regulate their pH?

What is the most important ______ in human blood?

A

buffers

buffer, bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)

57
Q

Define buffers and explain how they work.

A
  1. substances that resist change in pH

2. works by absorbing excess hydrogen ions or donating hydrogen ions when there are too few

58
Q

What is acid rain a result of? How is it harmful?

A

results from certain pollutants in the air (SO2, SO4, and CO2)
-has caused damage to many lakes and stone architecture

59
Q

Define organic compounds and list their classes.

A 
compounds that contain carbon
there are 4 classes:
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
60
Q

Carbohydrates consist of ______.

What are their characteristics?

A

3 elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.

  1. supply quick energy
  2. 1 g of any carb releases 4 cal of heat when burned
  3. dietary sources include rice, pasta, bread, and cookies
61
Q

3 classes of carbohydrates

A

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

62
Q

Monosaccharides:
Chemical formula
Examples
How these examples relate to each other?

A

C6H12O6
glucose, galactose, and fructose
They are isomers of each other

63
Q

Isomers

A

compounds with the same molecular formula but different structure
they have different physical and chemical properties

64
Q

Disaccharides
Chemical formula
Composed of ________.

A

C12H22O11

consist of 2 monosaccharides joined by a process known as dehydration synthesis

65
Q

Dehydration synthesis (aka synthesis)

A

process in which molecules are bonded together to form a larger molecule with the removal of water

66
Q

Dehydration synthesis of monosaccharides

A

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 =

C12H22O11 + H2O

67
Q

solve.
Glucose + Glucose =
Glucose + Galactose =
Glucose + Fructose =

A

maltose + water
lactose + water
sucrose + water

68
Q

Hydrolysis

A

the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.
this opposite of dehydration synthesis
-occurs during digestion
ex. sucrose + water = glucose + fructose

69
Q

Polysaccharides
Definition
How they are formed.
The 4 important examples.

A

polymers of carbohydrates
form as many monosacccharides are joined together by dehydration synthesis
cellulose, strach, chitin, and glycogen

70
Q

Polysaccharides found in plants are:

found in animals:

A
  1. cellulose
  2. starch
  3. chitin
  4. glycogen
71
Q

Cellulose

A

makes up plant cell walls

72
Q

Starch

A

the way plants store carbohydrates

73
Q

Chitin

A

makes up the exoskeleton n arthropods and cell walls in mushrooms

74
Q

Glycogen

A

‘animal starch’ ; in humans, this is stored in the liver and skeletal muscle

75
Q

Lipids
What they are.
What they consist of.

A

organic compounds that include fats, oils, and waxes

most consist of one glycerol and 3 fatty acids

76
Q

Fatty acid
Definition
Types

A

a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at 1 end

saturated or unsaturated

77
Q 
Saturated fats 
Consist of
Where they come from
Characteristics 
An example
A

-contain only single bonds between carbon atoms
1.come from animals
2.solid at room temperature
3.when ingested in large quantities are linked to heart disease
butter

78
Q

Unsaturated fats
Consists of ?
Where they come from
Characteristics

A
  • have at least 1 double bond between carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain, thus they have fewer hydrogen atoms
  • extracted from plants
    1. liquid at room temperature
    2. good dietary fats
79
Q

Lipid Functions

A
  1. energy storage: 1 g of any lipid will release 9 cal of heat per gram when burned in a calorimeter
  2. structural: phospholipids are a major component of the cell membrane
  3. endocrine: some lipids are hormones
80
Q

What are proteins?

A

proteins are polymers or polypeptides consisting of repeating units called amino acids joined by peptide bonds

81
Q

What do amino acids consist of?

A

a carboxyl group, an amine group, and a variable (R) . all attached to a central carbon atom
-the R group, or variable, differs with each amino acid

82
Q

What are proteins responsible for?

A

proteins are complex macromolecules and are responsible for growth and repair

83
Q

Protein characteristics

A
  1. dietary sources include fish, poultry, meat, and certain plants called legumes like beans and peanuts
  2. 1 g of protein burned in a calorimeter releases 4 cal of heat
  3. proteins consist of the elements SOCPHN
84
Q

How many amino acids are there? What can they build?

A

20 different amino acids

can build thousands of different proteins

85
Q

Name an example of proteins

A

enzymes

86
Q

Two amino acids can form a ____.

Define ______.

A

dipeptide

A dipeptide is a molecule consisting of 2 amino acids connected by 1 peptide bond

87
Q 
Define each:
peptide
peptide bond
polypeptide
peptidases
polymer
A
  1. a string of amino acids which are the ‘building blocks’ of proteins (doesn’t have as many amino acids as a protein does)
  2. a covalent bond joining the a-amino group of 1 amino acid to the carboxyl group of another with the loss of a water molecule
  3. a chain of amino acids linked together by covalent (peptide) bonds
  4. enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids
  5. molecules that are chains of repeating units; proteins and DNA are examples
88
Q

The shape of a protein is the result of

A

the result of four levels of structure

89
Q

Primary structure

A

results from the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein chain (linear)

90
Q

Secondary structure

A

results from the hydrogen bonding within the molecule. the helical nature of many proteins is the result of hydrogen bonding
(think of a spiral of ‘slinky’)

91
Q

Tertiary structure

A

3d shape or conformation of a protein and most directly determines the way it functions and its specificity.
( ‘knotted’ structure)
tertiary structure is directly responsible for the shape of a protein and how it functions

92
Q

Enzymes _________ in high temperatures or adverse pH. When a protein/enzyme denatures, it cannot function because ________.

A

denature (lose their natural shape)

its tertiary structure has been altered beyond repair

93
Q

Quaternary structure

A

refers to proteins that consist of more than 1 polypeptide chain
-hemoglobin exhibits quaternary structure because it consists of 4 chains
(several ‘knot’ structure bonded together)

94
Q

Define enzymes and their functions

A
  1. large proteins

2. speed up reactions by lowering the energy of activation (Ea), the amount of energy needed to begin a reaction

95
Q

Define substrate.

Explain how enzymes related to substrates.

A
  • the chemical that an enzyme works on

- enzymes are specific, only substrate A will bind to it’s enzyme

96
Q

Explain the induced-fit model

A

describes how enzymes work

As the substrate enters the active site, it induces the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so the substrate fits better

97
Q

Why was the lock and key model abandoned?

A

because it implied that the enzyme never changes

98
Q

What happens to an enzymes during a reaction?

A

enzymes are not degraded during a reaction and are reused

99
Q

How are enzymes named?

A

they are named after their substrate and the name ends in the suffix ‘ase’
ex. sucrase is the name of the enzyme that hydrolyzes sucrose

100
Q

Enzymes function with the assistance from

A

cofactors (minerals) or coenzymes (vitamins)

101
Q

What is the efficiency of the enzyme affected by?

A

affected by temperature and pH
average body temp is 37 degrees C near optimal for human enzymes
-if the body temp rises above 40 degrees C, the enzymes will stop functioning

102
Q

As enzymes denature, they

A

lose thier unique shape and ability to function

103
Q

Gastric enzymes become active at ________

Intestinal amylase work best in _______

A

low pH, when mixed with stomach acid

an alkaline environment

104
Q

Prions

A

infectious proteins that cause several brain diseases (i.e. mad cow)
- its a misfolded version o a protein normally fond in the brains of mammals.

105
Q

If a prion gets into a normal brain, it ______

A

causes all the normal proteins to misfold in the same way

106
Q

What are nucleic acids and what to they do?

A
  1. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)

2. carry hereditary information

107
Q

What are nucleic acids?

What does a single nucleotide consist of?

A
  1. polymers (chains of repeating units) of nucleotides

2. consists of a phosphate, a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), and a nitrogenous base

108
Q

In DNA, the nitrogen bases are:

In RNA, the nitrogen bases are:

A

adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine

adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil (instead of thymine)

109
Q

Adenine and guanine are:

Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are:

A

purines

pyrimidines

SAT II Biology (15 decks)

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