Chapter 13 Flashcards
social psychology def
-the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
-study individual people
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition
-trying to explain other people’s behavior to yourself when they behave in an unexpected manner
Attribution theory: dispositional (internal)
-enduring traits
-think about the worst
-no longer friends
Attribution theory: situational (external)
-based on a situation
-being kind, sympathetic
-think of good reasons
Fundamental attribution error
-tendency, when analysing other’s behaviors, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
-most likely to occur when a stranger acts badly
-has real-life and social consequences
*happens more frequently with strangers and low acquaintances
Attitudes def
feelings, often influences by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
-not directly connected with behavior
-asking direct questions is bad to predict behavior
-feel neg/positive feelings
Behavior is a great predictor of……….
Attitude
Attitude is a bad predictor of…… but follows…..
behavior, behavior
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
-Ex: cults, sales
role def
a set of expectations/norms about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
power of roles
-if put in a role, we would do that job even when we would never do that on our own choice
Cognitive dissonance theory
-the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.
-act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of out thoughts clash
-often bring attitudes into line with our actions
Peripheral route persuasion def
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness
-used for audience that is not informed about the subject
-EX: show picture of unvaccinated children
Central route persuasion
occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments
-used for audience that is informed
-EX: data about all the strains that a vaccine will defend against
norms def
-understood rules for accepted and expected behavior
-prescribe proper behavior
social influence
humans evolved to be in groups over time, in order to survive
-conformity
-obedience to authority
conformity def
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
people are more likely to conform when we
-are made to feel incompetent or insecure.
-are in a group with at least three people.
-are in a group in which everyone else agrees. (If just one other person disagrees, the odds of our disagreeing greatly increase.)
-admire the group’s status and attractiveness.
-have not made a prior commitment to any response.
-know that others in the group will observe our behavior.
-are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards.
Normative social influence def
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
-why we conform
-do it bc everyone else does it
informational social influence def
influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.
-change opinion to match group
-acceptance
Stanley Milgram’s experiments
-put in teacher position and had to shock their students if they answer wrong
-people obeyed orders even when they thought they were harming another person
-strong social influence can make ordinary people conform to falsehoods or exhibit cruel behavior
-in any society, great evil acts often grow out of people’s compliance with lesser evils
-40% said no to shocking
Findings from the Milgram experiements
-Proximity: The person giving orders was nearby and was perceived as a legitimate authority figure
-Power and prestige: the research was supported by a prestigious institution
-victim was depersonalized or at a distance (obscured by darkness or placed in another room)
-there were no role models for defiance (assume everyone obeys)
-legitimacy: view authority as having the right to delegate them
-minority influence: rebellion began with individuals resistance to majority status quo
Social facilitation def
-improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others, and worsened performance on difficult tasks
-arousal caused by evaluation apprehension
-ex: home team advantage
Social loafing def
-tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
-dont do best when others are doing same task to reduce mental strain
social loafing causes
-acting as part of the group and feeling less accountable
-feeling that individual contribution does not matter
-taking advantage when there is lack of identification with the group
-overestimate their own contribution
-free ride on others effort
deindividuation def
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
-how we react in groups, but would never do alone
-“mob mentality”
group polarization def
-group discussions with like-minded people strengthen member’s prevailing beliefs and attitudes
-doesn’t happen often
-can’t think of other solutions
-ex: echo chambers; jury, internet communication
groupthink def
people are driven by a desire for harmony within a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
-fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification, and group polarization
individual power def
-small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway the majority
-power of individual and power of the situation interact
-need to have confidence status
Prejudice def and what it is composed of
-an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members.
-Composed of negative emotion, stereotypes, and predisposition to discriminate
Stereotype def
generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.
Implicit prejudice def
-unaware thinking
-Results: even people who envy racial prejudice may carry negative associations
-happens more often
-race-influences perceptions: automatic racial bias
-reflexive bodily responses: unconscious, selective responses when looking at faces
explicit prejudice
-aware of our thinking
unconscious patronization def
lower expectations, inflated praise, and insufficient criticism for minority student achievement
how do psychologists study implicit prejudice
- testing for unconscious group associations
- considering unconscious patronization
- monitoring reflexive bodily response
Gender prejudice
-gender prejudice has declined sharply, but both implicit and explicit gender prejudice and discrimination persist
-despite equality between the sexes in intelligence score, people have tended to perceive their fathers as more intelligent than their mothers
social roots of prejudice
-social inequalities: often lead to the development of attitudes that justify the status quo
-just-world phenomenon: good is rewarded, and evil is punished
-stereotypes: rationalize inequalities
Social roots of prejudice: groups
- through social identities, people associate themselves with others
-evolution prepares people to identity with a group
scapegoat theory
theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
-evidence comes through social trends and experiments
just-world phenomenon def
the tendency for people to believe that the world is just and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
ingroup def
“us”—people with whom we share a common identity.
outgroup def
“them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.
-emerges between 3-9 months
aggression def
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
Biology of aggression: genetic influences
-alcohol associated with aggressive responses to frustration
-Y chromosome
Biology of aggression: Neural influences
-facilitate or inhibit aggression when provoked
-aggression is more likely to occur with frontal lobe damage
Biology of aggression: biochemical influences
-hormone testosterone, for example, circulates in the bloodstream and influences the neural systems that control aggression.
biology of aggression 3 influences
- genetic influences (biological)
- neural influences (psychological)
- biochemical influences
*social-cultural infleunces
aversive def
suffering
frustration-aggression principle
the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression
other anger triggers
-hot temperatures, physical pain, personal insults, foul odors, cigarette smoke, and crowding
-previous reinforcement for aggressive behavior, observing an aggressive role model, and poor self control
Social scripts
a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
-ex: viewing sexual violence contributes to greater aggression towards women
-ex: playing violent video games increases aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
Psychology of attraction depends on:
-proximity: geographic nearness
-physical attractiveness
-similarity of attitudes and interests
mere exposure effect def
he tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them
physical attractiveness
-predicts how often people date and how popular they feel
-people’s attractiveness is unrelated to their self-esteem and happiness
-attractive people are suspicious that praise of the work while less attractive people are more likely to accept praise as sincere
-to people who were friends before lovers- looks mattered less
Passionate love def
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship
two-factor theory of emotion
-emotions have two ingredients—physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal.
-arousal from any source can enhance one emotion or another, depending on how we interpret and label the arousal.
Sexual desire + a growing attachment = passionate love
Compassionate love def
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
-seldom endures
-testosterone give way to oxytocin that supports feelings of trust, calmness, and bonding
-attraction and sexual desire endure, without the obsession of early-stage marriage
-equity is important
self-disclosure deepens initmacy
equity def
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
self disclosure def
the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others
Altruism def
unselfish concern for the welfare of others
-people are more likely to help when they notice an incident, interpret it as an emergency, and assume responsibility for helping
-odds for being helped increase if the person appears to deserve help or is a woman
-similarity to self, being unhurried or in a good mood, feeling guilty, and being focused on others and not preoccupied also raise the likelihood of being helped
Bystander effect
-tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid of other bystanders are present
-occurs when there is a diffusion of responsibility
social exchange theory
he theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
socialization norm def
social expectation that prescribes how er should behave
reciprocity norm def
expectation that people will respond favorably to each other by returning benefits for benefit
social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those needing their help
conflict def
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
social traps def
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
mirror-image perceptions def
mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
self-fulfilling prophecies def
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
Enemy perceptions
-people in conflict form negative, distorted images of one another
-us vs. them develops
-viciou cycle of hostility emerges at individual or national level
-can become self-fulfilling prophecies
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
