Chapter 11 Flashcards
motivation def
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
4 perspective for understanding motivated behaviors:
- evolutionary perspective
- Drive-reduction theory
- arousal theory
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Instinct theory
-Genetically predisposed behavior
-fixed unlearned pattern throughout species
-genes predispose some species-typical behavior
-the more complex the nervous system, the more adaptable the organism
Drive-reduction theory
-responses to inner pushes
-we have physiological needs (like food or water), that drives hunger/thirst, makes us do drive-reducing behaviors like eating or drinking
-one way our bodies strive for homeostasis to maintain balance
-We are pulled by incentives, positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
Arousal theory
-right levels of stimulation
-motivated behaviors that increase or decrease arousal
-high arousal levels motivate engagement in behaviors that will lower these levels; ex: stress
-low arousal levels motivate activities that can increase arousal ; motivated by curiosity
-Yerkes-Dodson law: performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases (lower arousal is better for our best performance; higher arousal is needed to optimize performance)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
-pyramid of priority survival-based needs and then social needs more than the needs for esteem and meaning
-physiological need (base), safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization, self-transcendence (top_
Physiology of Hunger: what do humans automatically do?
they automatically regulate caloric intake through a homeostatic system to prevent energy deficits and maintain stable body weight
-stomach contractions
-blood sugar glucose regulation
-appetite hormones
-set point
-basal metabolic rate
Hunger: Glucose def
-form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues
-triggers the feeling of hunger when low
Hunger: arcuate nucleus (in hypothalmus)
pumps out appetite-suppressing hormones
Appetite hormone: Ghrelin
-increases appetite
-secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain
Appetite hormone: orexin
-increases appetite
-Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
Appetite hormone: Insulin
-decreases appetite
-secreted by pancreas; controls blood sugar
Appetite hormone: Leptin
-decreases appetite
-Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
Appetite hormone: PYY
-decreases appetite
-digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain
set point
the point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.
Basal metabolic rate
-the body’s resting rate of energy output
-metabolism will increase/decrease based on how much you eat
-exercise, eating regularly, nicotine increase metabolism
what factors influence taste preferences?
-environmental factors; adaptive
-taste preferences (most people like sweet and salty tastes); can be due to culture
Situational Influences on eating: tempting situations
-friends and food
-serving size is significant
-selections stimulate (food variety)
-nudging nutrition (giving carrots first so children eat healthy)
Do Genetics influence body weight?
-YES Children’s weights resemble those of their biological parents
-identical twins have similar weights even when raised apart
Does the environment influence obesity?
YES
-sleep loss contributes to a fall in leptin levels and rise in ghrelin levels
-social influence seen in the correlation amoung friends weights
Tips for weight management
-begin only if you feel motivated and self-disciplined
-exercise and sleep
-minimize exposure to tempting food
-limit variety and eat healthy foods
-reduce portion sizes and relabel your portions
-time your intake
-beware of the binge
-before eating with others, decide how much you want to eat
-realize that most people lapse
-chart progress online
-connect to a support group
Testosterone def
-the most important male sex hormone
-males and females have it, but males have more which stimulates the growth of male sex organs during the fetal period and male sex characteristics during puberty
asexual def
-having no sexual attraction toward others
-1% of humans
estrogen def
-female sex hormones
-secreted in greater amounts by females than males
When do sex hormones influence us?
-During the prenatal period, they direct our sexual development.
-During puberty, a sex hormone surge ushers us into adolescence.
-After puberty and well into the late adult years, sex hormones facilitate sexual behavior.
Large hormonal surges/declines occur when?
-pubertal-stage surge triggers development of sex characteristics and sexual interest
-estrogen levels fall in later life, causing menopause in women
(surgery or drugs may cause hormonal shifts)
4 stages of the sexual response cycle
- excitement
- Plateau
- orgasm
- resolution
Sexual response cycle: excitement
-The genital areas become engorged with blood, causing a woman’s clitoris and a man’s penis to swell.
-A woman’s vagina expands and secretes lubricant; her breasts and nipples may enlarge.
Sexual response cycle: Plateau
-Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase.
-A man’s penis becomes fully engorged—to an average length of 5.6 inches among 1661 men who measured themselves for condom fitting
-Some fluid—frequently containing enough live sperm to enable conception—may appear at its tip.
-A woman’s vaginal secretion continues to increase, and her clitoris retracts. Orgasm feels imminent.
Sexual response cycle: orgasm
-Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates.
-The pleasurable feeling of sexual release is much the same for both sexes.
-One panel of experts could not reliably distinguish between descriptions of orgasm written by men and those written by women
-In another study, PET scans showed that the same subcortical brain regions were active in men and women during orgasm
Sexual response cycle: resolution
-The body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood.
-For men, this happens relatively quickly if orgasm has occurred, relatively slowly otherwise.
-Men then enter a refractory period that lasts from a few minutes to a day or more, during which they are incapable of another orgasm.
-A woman’s much shorter refractory period may enable her, if restimulated during or soon after resolution, to have more orgasms.
Sexual dysfunction
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning at any point in the sexual response cycle
erectile disorder
inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient blood flow to the penis
female orgasmic disorder
distress due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm
premature ejaculation
sexual climax that occurs before the man or his partner wishes
Paraphilias
-mostly men
-experiencing sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others or nonconsenting persons
AIDS
a life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a sexually transmitted infection. AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
American Psychological Association
-classifies people who experience sexual desires om unusual ways as disordered only if: the person experiences distress from unusual sexual interest or interest entails harm or risk of harm to others
-Necrophilia, exhibitionism, pedophilia
STI (sexually transmitted disease)
-spread primarily from person to person
-spread more easily from men to women than from women to men
(most common in 14-19 year old females)
sex: external stimuli
-men are more aroused when erotic material aligns with their personal sexual interests
-content and intensity of sexual experience arouse women
-porn may decrease sexual satisfaction with own partner and may change perceptions about rape and other sexual violence
Influences on teen pregnancy rate
-minimal communication about birth control
-impulsivity/guilt related to sexual activity
-alcohol use
-mass-media norms of unprotected promiscuity
Characteristics of teens who delay having sex
-high intelligence
-religious engagement
-father presence
-participation in service-learning program
Sexual orientation
the direction of our sexual attractions, as reflected in our longings and fantasies
What percent of the population are exclusively homosexual?
-3 to 4 percent of men and 2 percent of women
-women tend to be more fluid
Is sexual orientation willfully choosen?
No psychologists view sexual orientation as neither willfully chosen nor willfully changed
-not allowed to try to change a person’s gender identity or sexual orientation
Origins of Sexual orientation
-Gay and lesbian people were no more likely than heterosexual people to have been smothered by maternal love or neglected by their father.—has nothing to do with parental relationships
-peer influence has little or no effect on sexual orientation
-fear/hatred of the other sex has nothing to do with sexual orientation
-sexual orientation post-natal is not linked with sex hormone levels in the blood
-being sexually molested also has no influence on sexual orientation
-environment likely contributes to sexual orientation
Sexual oreintation: Gay-straight brain differences
-one hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men than in straight men
-gay men’s hypothalamus reacts as straight women’s hypothalamus does to the smell of sex-related hormones
Sexual orientation: Genetic influence
-shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than among fraternal twins
-sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically manipulated
-male homosexulaity appears to be transmitted from the mother’s side of the family
-there is no specific gay gene
Sexual orientation: prenatal influences
-altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals
-men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay, possibly due to a maternal immune system reaction
-sexual orientation is more biological than environmental; environment just determines if the person comes out or not
Gay-straight trait differences
-there is a critical period between 2-5 months regarding sexual orientation and behavioral traits
-traits for being homosexual fall in between what men are and women
SO what biologically explains sexual orientation
the brain, genetic, and prenatal findings
ostracism
being socially excluded
-threatens the need to belong
affiliation need
key human motivation where there is the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group
What do social bonds do?
they boosted our early ancestors chances of survival
-combat more successful
-reproduction was strengthened
-foes were avoided
What does having a social identity do?
it allows us to to feel part of a group boosting our health and well being
self-determination theory
theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness
-key to explaining human motivation
pain of being shut out
-can cause physical pain
Connecting and social networking
-mobile phones
-texts and instant messaging
-the internet
-social networking
-social amplifier
Narcissism def
excessive self-love and self-absorption
achievement motivation def
desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard
Grit
passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
intrinsic motivation def
desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
extrinsic motivation def
the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Goal setting to achieve the goal
1.make the resolution
2. announce the goal to friends/family
3. develop an implementation plan
4. create short-term rewards that support long-term goals
5. Monitor and record progress
6. create a supportive environment
7. transform the hard-to-do behavior into a must-do habit
Yerkes-Dodson law
principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
