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psychology > chap 7-8 > Flashcards

chap 7-8 Flashcards

(109 cards)

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1
Q

what is learning?

A

process of acquiring through new experience new information or behaviors

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2
Q

How do we learn: Associative learning

A

-certain events that occur together (classical conditioning)
-stimuli that are not controlled are associated
-response becomes automatic (respondent behavior)

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3
Q

How do we learn: consequences

A

-association between a response and a consequence is learned (operant behavior)

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4
Q

Classical conditioning

A

-basic learning form
-type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
-response becomes automatic

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5
Q

operant behavior

A

-behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence
-consequence can be good or bad

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6
Q

Pavlov

A

-founded classical conditioning
-demonstrate associative learning via salivary conditioning in dogs

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7
Q

watson

A

-“father of behaviorism”
-believed that theoretical goal of the science of psychology is prediction and control of behavior

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8
Q

conditioning experiment

A

-unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salvitation)
-neutral stimulus (tone) produces no response
-Unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented after the neutral stimulus (tone)
-unconditioned stimulus (food) continues to produce a unconditioned response (salivation)
-Neutral stimulus (now conditioned stimulus: tone) now produces a conditioned response (salivation)

-neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus
-unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response

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9
Q

neutral stimulus

A

-stimulus that naturally/automatically triggers an unconditioned response
-elicits no response before conditioning

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10
Q

conditioned response

A

a learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus

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11
Q

conditioned stimulus

A

originally neutral stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response

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12
Q

unconditioned response

A

unlearned naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

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13
Q

unconditioned stimulus

A

stimulus that naturally/automatically triggers an unconditioned response

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14
Q

Classical conditioning: Acquisition

A

-when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

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15
Q

Classical conditioning: higher-order conditioning

A

-also called second order conditioning
procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus

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16
Q

classical conditioning: extinction

A

-diminishing of a conditioned response
-occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

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17
Q

classical conditioning: spontaneous recovery

A

reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response

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18
Q

Classical conditioning: Generalization

A

tendency once a response has been conditioned for a stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response
ex: scared of all bugs

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19
Q

Classical conditioning: Discrimination

A

learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli
ex: scared of just bees

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20
Q

operant conditioning

A

type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely if punisher

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21
Q

Law of effect

A

-Edward L. Thorndike
-behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely while unfavorable consequences are more unlikely
-operant conditioning

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22
Q

Operant chamber (skinner box)

A

-B.F. Skinner
-chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
-attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing

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23
Q

Operant conditioning: reinforcement

A

any event that strengthens a preceding response; makes a behavior more likely to occur

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24
Q

Operant conditioning: shaping

A

reinforcers gradually guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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25
Operant conditioning: positive reinforcement
-increases behaviors by presenting positive/pleasurable forces -any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response - means giving
26
Operant conditioning: negative response
-increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli -any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response -ex: using exercise to remove stress -ex: car dinging to put on seatbelt
27
Operant conditioning: primary
-unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli -satisfies biological needs -ex: hugs, candy
28
Operant conditioning: conditioned (secondary)
gains power through association with primary reinforcer -ex: money
29
Operant conditioning: immediate
occurs immediately after a behavior
30
Operant conditioning: delayed
involves time delay between desired response and delivery of reward -wont associate action with punishment/reward
31
Operant conditioning: reinforcement schedule
a pattern defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
32
Operant conditioning: continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforces the desired response every time it occurs
33
Operant conditioning: partial (intermittent reinforcement)
-reinforces a response only part of the time -results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
34
Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio
reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses -very high rate of responding -extinction happens fast -immediate effect -ex: rat gets food every third time it presses the lever
35
Schedules of Reinforcement: variable ratio
-reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses -random -extinction takes longer - gambling, fishing, very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability -ex: hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine
36
Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Interval
-reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed -rapid responses at end interval -ex: getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done
37
Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable Interval
-reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals -produces slow and steady responding -least likely to extinct -ex: checking phone all day, sometimes getting a text
38
Operant conditioning: punishment
-admininters an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior
39
Operant conditioning: positive punishment
-administer an aversive stimulus -presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future
40
Operant conditioning: negative punishment
-withdrawing a rewarding stimulus -taking away something good
41
4 major drawback of physical punishment
1) punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten 2) punishment teaches discrimination among situations 3) punishment can teach fear 4) physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems (must be immediate; punish in the moment; punishment needs to match the crime)
42
Skinner's Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning
-at school: computer and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning -in sports: behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance -at work: rewards successfully used to increase productivity -in parenting: basic rules of shaping used in parenting
43
limits on classical conditioning
-animals and humans seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others -conditioning is stronger when the conditioned stimulus is ecologically relevant -genetic predisposition to associate a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that follows predictably and immediately is adaptive
44
limits on operant conditioning
-nature limits species capacity for operant conditioning -biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive -instinctive drift occurs as animals revert to biologically predisposed patterns
45
observational learning
higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others
46
Bandura
-pioneer researcher of observational learning -used modeling -bobo doll experiment focused in vicarious reinforcements and vicarious punishment
47
modeling
process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
48
mirror neurons
fire when performing certain actions or when observing another person do so
49
Prosocial effects
positive constructive, helpful behavior
50
antisocial effect
-can be genetic and environmental -abusive parents may have aggressive children -watching TV and videos may teach children some unwanted lessons
51
memory
persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
52
recall
retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time ex: fill in the blank questions to test
53
recognition
identifying items previously learned ex: multiple choice
54
relearning
learning something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time
55
information-processing model
-compares human memory to computer operations -involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrival
56
connectionism information-processing model
-focuses on multitrack, parallel processing -views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
57
Atkinson-Shiffrin model
1. record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory 2. process info into short-term memory where we encode it through rehearsal 3. Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval
58
sensory memory
-immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system -access to visual array -lasts for about 20 secs -ex: reading
59
short-term memory
-briefly activated memory of a few items -where you encode - can memorize about 5-9 things at once - has limited capacity -ex: memorization, taking notes
60
long-term memory
relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system
61
working memory
-short-term memory -intelligent people tend to have a bigger capacity -to stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage
62
automatic processing
to address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness -learn things without trying -classical conditioning
63
auditory rehearsal
repeating a password to memorize it
64
executive functions
choosing what to attend to, respond to
65
Visospatial sketchpad
rearranging room furniture in your mind
66
explicit memories
-conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious effortful processing -retention of facts and experiences
67
implicit memories
-unconscious memories that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track -ex: classical condition
68
iconic memory
picture-image memory
69
echoic memory
-sound memory -have access to everything, but only pay attention to certain things
70
chuncking
-organization for a lot of information into familiar, manageable units -occurs automatically ex: acronms
71
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
72
Hierarchies
organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
73
spacing effect
encoding is more effective when it is spread over time
74
massed practie
produces speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence -cramming -end loading
75
distributed practice
produces better long-term recall -dividing study over time -front loading
76
testing effect
retrieval practice effect or test enhanced effect -testing improves learning and memory -testing protects out memory from the harmful effects of stress
77
making material personally meaningful
-most people excel at remembering personally relevant information -members of individualist Western cultures tend to exhibit the self-reference effect -might not work for all cultures bc they do not have the experience
78
hippocampus and frontal lobes are dedicated to what
explicit memories
79
memory consolidation
neural storage of long-term memories
80
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
81
episodic memory
memory for episodes; sequence of events
82
memory consolidation
neural storage of a long-term memory
83
cerebellum
-implicit memory system -plays an important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning
84
basal ganglia
-implicit memory system -memory of physical skills
85
false memory syndrome
-through repeated questioning and pictorial evidence you make the person make up a story they did about something they have not done
86
Infantile amnesia
-brain is not fully developed -conscious memory of the first 3 years of life is blank -command of language and well-developed hippocampus are needed to form memories
87
Amygdala
-linked to negative emotion
88
flashbulb memories
-episodic memories -occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal -memories that are memorable bc of emotion
89
Synaptic Change: long-term potentiation (LTP)
-increase in a synapses firing potential -makes memory more accessible -brain will not erase memories -believed to be a neutral basis for learning and memory
90
memory retrieval
best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encoded
91
priming
-retrieval cue -makes memories more accessible -activation of a particular associations in memory ex: more likely to spell hare when see the word rabbit
92
context-dependent memory
recall of specific information is improved when the contextes present at encoding and at retrieval are the same
93
encoding specificity principle
cues and context specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall
94
state dependent memory/mood-congruent mood
tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood
95
serial position effect
tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list
96
causes for forgetting
-encoding failure -storage decay -interference -motivated forgetting
97
encoding failure
-age: encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline -attention: failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure
98
storage decay
-course of forgetting is initially rapid but then levels off with time -physical changes in the brain occur as memories form (memory trace)
99
proactive
older memories make it more difficult to remember new information
100
retroactive
new learning disrupts memory for older information
101
Motivated forgetting: Freud
repressed memories protect a person's self concept and minimize anxiety
102
motivated forgetting: today
attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional
103
misinformation effect
a memory is corrupted by misleading information
104
imagination effect
repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories
105
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
106
Deja Vu
-sense that "I have experienced this before" -cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
107
false memories
-feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event -often result of faulty eyewitness testimony
108
Ceci and Bruck
-studied the effect of suggestive interviewing techniques -58% of preschoolers produced false stories about unexperienced events
109
SQ3R
survey, question, read, retrieve, review

psychology (12 decks)

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