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chap 7-8 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is learning?

A

process of acquiring through new experience new information or behaviors

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2
Q

How do we learn: Associative learning

A

-certain events that occur together (classical conditioning)
-stimuli that are not controlled are associated
-response becomes automatic (respondent behavior)

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3
Q

How do we learn: consequences

A

-association between a response and a consequence is learned (operant behavior)

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4
Q

Classical conditioning

A

-basic learning form
-type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
-response becomes automatic

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5
Q

operant behavior

A

-behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence
-consequence can be good or bad

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6
Q

Pavlov

A

-founded classical conditioning
-demonstrate associative learning via salivary conditioning in dogs

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7
Q

watson

A

-“father of behaviorism”
-believed that theoretical goal of the science of psychology is prediction and control of behavior

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8
Q

conditioning experiment

A

-unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salvitation)
-neutral stimulus (tone) produces no response
-Unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented after the neutral stimulus (tone)
-unconditioned stimulus (food) continues to produce a unconditioned response (salivation)
-Neutral stimulus (now conditioned stimulus: tone) now produces a conditioned response (salivation)

-neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus
-unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response

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9
Q

neutral stimulus

A

-stimulus that naturally/automatically triggers an unconditioned response
-elicits no response before conditioning

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10
Q

conditioned response

A

a learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus

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11
Q

conditioned stimulus

A

originally neutral stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response

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12
Q

unconditioned response

A

unlearned naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

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13
Q

unconditioned stimulus

A

stimulus that naturally/automatically triggers an unconditioned response

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14
Q

Classical conditioning: Acquisition

A

-when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

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15
Q

Classical conditioning: higher-order conditioning

A

-also called second order conditioning
procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus

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16
Q

classical conditioning: extinction

A

-diminishing of a conditioned response
-occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

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17
Q

classical conditioning: spontaneous recovery

A

reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response

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18
Q

Classical conditioning: Generalization

A

tendency once a response has been conditioned for a stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response
ex: scared of all bugs

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19
Q

Classical conditioning: Discrimination

A

learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli
ex: scared of just bees

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20
Q

operant conditioning

A

type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely if punisher

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21
Q

Law of effect

A

-Edward L. Thorndike
-behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely while unfavorable consequences are more unlikely
-operant conditioning

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22
Q

Operant chamber (skinner box)

A

-B.F. Skinner
-chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
-attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing

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23
Q

Operant conditioning: reinforcement

A

any event that strengthens a preceding response; makes a behavior more likely to occur

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24
Q

Operant conditioning: shaping

A

reinforcers gradually guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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25
Q

Operant conditioning: positive reinforcement

A

-increases behaviors by presenting positive/pleasurable forces
-any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
- means giving

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26
Q

Operant conditioning: negative response

A

-increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
-any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
-ex: using exercise to remove stress
-ex: car dinging to put on seatbelt

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27
Q

Operant conditioning: primary

A

-unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli
-satisfies biological needs
-ex: hugs, candy

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28
Q

Operant conditioning: conditioned (secondary)

A

gains power through association with primary reinforcer
-ex: money

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29
Q

Operant conditioning: immediate

A

occurs immediately after a behavior

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30
Q

Operant conditioning: delayed

A

involves time delay between desired response and delivery of reward
-wont associate action with punishment/reward

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31
Q

Operant conditioning: reinforcement schedule

A

a pattern defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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32
Q

Operant conditioning: continuous reinforcement schedule

A

reinforces the desired response every time it occurs

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33
Q

Operant conditioning: partial (intermittent reinforcement)

A

-reinforces a response only part of the time
-results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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34
Q

Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio

A

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
-very high rate of responding
-extinction happens fast
-immediate effect
-ex: rat gets food every third time it presses the lever

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35
Q

Schedules of Reinforcement: variable ratio

A

-reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
-random
-extinction takes longer
- gambling, fishing, very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability
-ex: hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine

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36
Q

Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Interval

A

-reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
-rapid responses at end interval
-ex: getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done

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37
Q

Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable Interval

A

-reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
-produces slow and steady responding
-least likely to extinct
-ex: checking phone all day, sometimes getting a text

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38
Q

Operant conditioning: punishment

A

-admininters an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior

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39
Q

Operant conditioning: positive punishment

A

-administer an aversive stimulus
-presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future

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40
Q

Operant conditioning: negative punishment

A

-withdrawing a rewarding stimulus
-taking away something good

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41
Q

4 major drawback of physical punishment

A

1) punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten
2) punishment teaches discrimination among situations
3) punishment can teach fear
4) physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems (must be immediate; punish in the moment; punishment needs to match the crime)

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42
Q

Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning

A

-at school: computer and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning
-in sports: behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance
-at work: rewards successfully used to increase productivity
-in parenting: basic rules of shaping used in parenting

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43
Q

limits on classical conditioning

A

-animals and humans seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others
-conditioning is stronger when the conditioned stimulus is ecologically relevant
-genetic predisposition to associate a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that follows predictably and immediately is adaptive

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44
Q

limits on operant conditioning

A

-nature limits species capacity for operant conditioning
-biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive
-instinctive drift occurs as animals revert to biologically predisposed patterns

45
Q

observational learning

A

higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others

46
Q

Bandura

A

-pioneer researcher of observational learning
-used modeling
-bobo doll experiment focused in vicarious reinforcements and vicarious punishment

47
Q

modeling

A

process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

48
Q

mirror neurons

A

fire when performing certain actions or when observing another person do so

49
Q

Prosocial effects

A

positive constructive, helpful behavior

50
Q

antisocial effect

A

-can be genetic and environmental
-abusive parents may have aggressive children
-watching TV and videos may teach children some unwanted lessons

51
Q

memory

A

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

52
Q

recall

A

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time
ex: fill in the blank questions to test

53
Q

recognition

A

identifying items previously learned
ex: multiple choice

54
Q

relearning

A

learning something more quickly when you encounter it a second or later time

55
Q

information-processing model

A

-compares human memory to computer operations
-involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrival

56
Q

connectionism information-processing model

A

-focuses on multitrack, parallel processing
-views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

57
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin model

A
  1. record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory
  2. process info into short-term memory where we encode it through rehearsal
  3. Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval
58
Q

sensory memory

A

-immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
-access to visual array
-lasts for about 20 secs
-ex: reading

59
Q

short-term memory

A

-briefly activated memory of a few items
-where you encode
- can memorize about 5-9 things at once
- has limited capacity
-ex: memorization, taking notes

60
Q

long-term memory

A

relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system

61
Q

working memory

A

-short-term memory
-intelligent people tend to have a bigger capacity
-to stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage

62
Q

automatic processing

A

to address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness
-learn things without trying
-classical conditioning

63
Q

auditory rehearsal

A

repeating a password to memorize it

64
Q

executive functions

A

choosing what to attend to, respond to

65
Q

Visospatial sketchpad

A

rearranging room furniture in your mind

66
Q

explicit memories

A

-conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious effortful processing
-retention of facts and experiences

67
Q

implicit memories

A

-unconscious memories that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track
-ex: classical condition

68
Q

iconic memory

A

picture-image memory

69
Q

echoic memory

A

-sound memory
-have access to everything, but only pay attention to certain things

70
Q

chuncking

A

-organization for a lot of information into familiar, manageable units
-occurs automatically
ex: acronms

71
Q

Mnemonics

A

memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

72
Q

Hierarchies

A

organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

73
Q

spacing effect

A

encoding is more effective when it is spread over time

74
Q

massed practie

A

produces speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence
-cramming
-end loading

75
Q

distributed practice

A

produces better long-term recall
-dividing study over time
-front loading

76
Q

testing effect

A

retrieval practice effect or test enhanced effect
-testing improves learning and memory
-testing protects out memory from the harmful effects of stress

77
Q

making material personally meaningful

A

-most people excel at remembering personally relevant information
-members of individualist Western cultures tend to exhibit the self-reference effect
-might not work for all cultures bc they do not have the experience

78
Q

hippocampus and frontal lobes are dedicated to what

A

explicit memories

79
Q

memory consolidation

A

neural storage of long-term memories

80
Q

semantic memory

A

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

81
Q

episodic memory

A

memory for episodes; sequence of events

82
Q

memory consolidation

A

neural storage of a long-term memory

83
Q

cerebellum

A

-implicit memory system
-plays an important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning

84
Q

basal ganglia

A

-implicit memory system
-memory of physical skills

85
Q

false memory syndrome

A

-through repeated questioning and pictorial evidence you make the person make up a story they did about something they have not done

86
Q

Infantile amnesia

A

-brain is not fully developed
-conscious memory of the first 3 years of life is blank
-command of language and well-developed hippocampus are needed to form memories

87
Q

Amygdala

A

-linked to negative emotion

88
Q

flashbulb memories

A

-episodic memories
-occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal
-memories that are memorable bc of emotion

89
Q

Synaptic Change: long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

-increase in a synapses firing potential
-makes memory more accessible
-brain will not erase memories
-believed to be a neutral basis for learning and memory

90
Q

memory retrieval

A

best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encoded

91
Q

priming

A

-retrieval cue
-makes memories more accessible
-activation of a particular associations in memory
ex: more likely to spell hare when see the word rabbit

92
Q

context-dependent memory

A

recall of specific information is improved when the contextes present at encoding and at retrieval are the same

93
Q

encoding specificity principle

A

cues and context specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall

94
Q

state dependent memory/mood-congruent mood

A

tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood

95
Q

serial position effect

A

tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

96
Q

causes for forgetting

A

-encoding failure
-storage decay
-interference
-motivated forgetting

97
Q

encoding failure

A

-age: encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline
-attention: failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure

98
Q

storage decay

A

-course of forgetting is initially rapid but then levels off with time
-physical changes in the brain occur as memories form (memory trace)

99
Q

proactive

A

older memories make it more difficult to remember new information

100
Q

retroactive

A

new learning disrupts memory for older information

101
Q

Motivated forgetting: Freud

A

repressed memories protect a person’s self concept and minimize anxiety

102
Q

motivated forgetting: today

A

attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional

103
Q

misinformation effect

A

a memory is corrupted by misleading information

104
Q

imagination effect

A

repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories

105
Q

source amnesia

A

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

106
Q

Deja Vu

A

-sense that “I have experienced this before”
-cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

107
Q

false memories

A

-feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event
-often result of faulty eyewitness testimony

108
Q

Ceci and Bruck

A

-studied the effect of suggestive interviewing techniques
-58% of preschoolers produced false stories about unexperienced events

109
Q

SQ3R

A

survey, question, read, retrieve, review

psychology (12 decks)

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