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Bio 1113 > Chapter 12: Cellular Division > Flashcards

Chapter 12: Cellular Division Flashcards

1
Q

What type of chromosomes are in eukaryotes?

A

Linear chromosomes. Cells often contain 2 copies of each chromosome (homologous chromosomes)

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2
Q

What are the 6 stages of the eukaryotic cell cycle?

A

G0, G1, S, G2, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis

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3
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Long strands of DNA wrapped around proteins called histones

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4
Q

What are external factors that impact cell division?

A

Growth factors, density dependent inhibition, and anchorage dependence

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5
Q

What is the spindle apparatus (MTOC) made of?

A

Microtubules and other proteins

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6
Q

What does interphase consist of?

A

Gap 1 (G1), Synthesis (S), and Gap 2 (G2)

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7
Q

What does cytokinesis indicate?

A

Division of organelles and cytoplasm

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8
Q

What is securin?

A

A protein that secures separase

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9
Q

What phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle is the cell dividing in?

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis

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10
Q

What are homologous chromosomes? Where do they come from?

A

Two copies of each chromosome. One from mom and one from dad

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11
Q

What is separase?

A

An enzyme that cuts the sister chromatids apart to be pulled to opposite poles

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12
Q

What is anchorage dependence?

A

Normal cells need to be anchored to the extracellular matrix and each other

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13
Q

What type of chromosomes are in prokaryotes?

A

Single circular chromosome

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14
Q

What are condensins?

A

Targets of G2 checkpoint (MPF) that help DNA pack together in prophase

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15
Q

How much DNA is in the human body?

A

2 x 10^13 (67 trips to the sun and back)

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16
Q

What does fission indicate?

A

There is no nucleus

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17
Q

What do microtubules that aren’t attached to chromosomes do in anaphase?

A

They push against each other to move the cell apart

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18
Q

What is the G2 checkpoint?

A

M phase-promotion factor (MPF). Allows G2 to continue to mitosis. Last check before mitosis

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19
Q

What two signals can a cell receive at the G1 checkpoint?

A

A green light to continue to s phase or a red light to exit the cell cycle and enter G0

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20
Q

What phase are chromosomes easiest to see under a microscope?

A

Metaphase

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21
Q

What forms in prophase?

A

Spindle apparatus (MTOC - microtubule organizing center)

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22
Q

What are the three parts of chromosome structure?

A

Centromere, telomere, and kinetochore

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23
Q

What happens with density dependent inhibition in cancer cells?

A

It doesn’t do anything. Cancer cells don’t stop dividing

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24
Q

What targets of the G2 checkpoint (MPF) are needed for mitosis to proceed?

A

All of them

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25
What is a telomere?
Chromosome structure that is the region of repetitive DNA sequences at the end of chromosomes
26
What happens in prometaphase?
The nuclear envelope disassembles (DNA no longer protected) and spindle fibers attach to kinetochores
27
What does condensing before division do for cells?
Makes it easier for the cell to split the chromosomes evenly between the two cells
28
Example of a growth factor
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). When you cut your leg, it triggers cells to divide to heal the wound
29
How does cytokinesis occur in animals?
Cleavage furrow pinches off separated nuclei
30
How much DNA is in a single cell?
2 meters
31
When can chromosomes be seen?
When cells are getting ready for division only, but they are always there
32
What happens when a microtubule doesn't attach?
The cell doesn't pass the M phase checkpoint (APC - metaphase to anaphase)
33
What are the two things that can happen in asexual cellular division?
Mitosis and binary fission (bacteria)
34
What is the metaphase plate?
The location where chromosomes align in metaphase. It is not an actual physical structure
35
Example of a growth factor
Rb attached to E2F (transcription factor) preventing it from transcribing DNA. Growth factor added to Ras pathway to cdk-cyclin complex which phosphorylates the Rb protein with ATP to allow E2F to transcribe
36
How is cell cycle regulation controlled?
A system of signaling molecules which trigger and coordinate the events of the cell cycle
37
How are sister chromosomes pulled to opposite poles of the cell in anaphase?
Microtubules shorten due to being disassembled which causes the sister chromosomes to be pulled to opposite poles
38
What can happen in G0?
Some cells, like liver cells, can be called back into division
39
What factors can cause a cell to enter G0 from the G1 checkpoint?
Is the cell big enough, are conditions favorable, any DNA damage, etc.
40
What type of animal is the G1 checkpoint most important in?
Mammals
41
What are the targets of the G2 checkpoint (MPF)?
Condensins (help DNA pack together in prophase), proteins involved in mitotic spindle formation, lamins (proteins involved in nuclear envelope assembly/breakdown), and also shutting itself down and allowing the cell to continue to mitosis
42
What are the two types of cellular division?
Asexual and sexual
43
What do the tails of histones do?
They are important in gene expression. Can block genes or turn them on
44
What happens in G1 of interphase?
Growth, protein synthesis, and organelle synthesis. The cellular contents (excluding chromosomes) are duplicated
45
How many genes are in the human body? What percentage of DNA is this? What is the other percent?
20,000-25,000 genes that are 2% of DNA. Other 98% are critical non-coding regions
46
What is the end product of mitosis?
2 identical daughter cells
47
What happens when cytokinesis doesn't follow mitosis? Is this possible?
A cell with multiple nuclei will be the end product. It is possible, however, rare
48
What happens in metaphase and why does it occur?
Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate and it occurs because of tug of war between the two poles
49
What is interphase?
When the cell is getting ready for division
50
What is a kinetochore?
Chromosome structure that is a disc shaped protein that spindle fibers attach to. It attaches to the centromere
51
What happens in G2 of interphase?
Growth, synthesis of microtubules, cell cycle checkpoints (the cell double checks the duplicated chromosomes for error, making any needed repairs)
52
How do cyclin dependent kinases work?
They are present at constant concentrations but usually are inactive. They are activated by attaching to cyclins and their activity matches cyclins when they attach to them
53
How many phases is mitosis divided into? What are they? Why is this sort of hazy?
5 phases. Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. It is hazy because mitosis is a continuous process and there are no starting or stopping points.
54
What happens in anaphase?
Sister chromatids are cut apart and pulled to opposite poles of the cell
55
What does mitosis indicate?
Nuclear division
56
What is the M phase checkpoint (anaphase promoting complex - APC)
A complex of 11-13 proteins that marks cell cycle proteins for degradation. Metaphase to anaphase checkpoint
57
How does cytokinesis occur in plants?
A new cell wall is formed between two cells. Golgi-derived vesicles bring materials to the middle that fuse to form cell plate which becomes a cell wall between the two cells
58
What is a genome?
The DNA of a cell. It is the same in all cells in a person but varies per person
59
What happens in cytokinesis?
The cytoplasm divides
60
What is a centromere?
Chromosome structure that is the condensed region of the chromosome that stays condensed. The kinetochore connects here
61
How do cyclins work?
Levels fluctuate cyclically. They go up and down at certain points of interphase
62
What happens to chromosomes in prophase?
They begin to condense and can be seen under a microscope
63
What is bacterial binary fission and what does it produce?
A form of asexual reproduction carried out by bacteria that produces no genetic diversity but is very fast
64
What happens in S of interphase?
DNA is duplicated (each of the 46 chromosomes duplicated)
65
What usually follows mitosis?
Cytokinesis
66
How does the cell ensure it is ready to proceed to the next step?
Multiple checkpoints
67
How does the cell plate form in plant cell cytokinesis?
Golgi-derived vesicles bring materials to the middle to create it
68
Where does the kinetochore connect?
Centromere
69
What two main regulatory molecules are involved in cell cycle clocks?
Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (cdks)
70
How are sister chromatids cut apart in anaphase?
Cohesion that holds them together is cleaved by enzymes
71
What percentage of time do cells spend in interphase?
90%
72
How do cyclin dependent kinases get activated?
They attach to cyclins
73
What is the G1 checkpoint?
The restriction point that comes before DNA replication
74
What happens in telophase?
Nuclear envelopes reform around DNA (2 nuclei) and chromosomes unfold back into chromatin (reversal of prophase)
75
Why is tight cell cycle regulation important?
It ensures normal growth and development
76
What stage are most cells in the human body at?
G0
77
What do telomeres do?
They are the ends of chromosomes that don't code for anything. Division causes the ends to not be replicated so telomeres act as a buffer to ensure all the DNA gets replicated. They tell the cell to stop dividing when they are gone. They cause the cell to have a limited number of divisions
78
What happens in sexual cellular division?
Meiosis
79
What does the protein dimer consist of in the G2 checkpoint?
A cyclin and a cdk
80
What happens when chromosomes are duplicated?
It creates sister chromatids (two arms that are identical copies making up a chromosome)
81
When are chromosomes duplicated?
Before cell division
82
What is density dependent inhibition?
Cells grow and divide until they touch their neighbors, then they stop
83
What happens at the G1 checkpoint?
The cell has to commit to dividing or not
84
What are the four reasons why cells divide?
Reproduction, growth and development, tissue renewal, and maintain a favorable surface area to volume ratio
85
What are lamins?
Targets of G2 checkpoint (MPF) that are proteins involved in nuclear envelope assembly/breakdown
86
How are sister chromatids held together?
At the centromere
87
What are growth factors and what do they do?
Signals from other cells (social cues) that multicellular organisms rely on
88
What is the spindle apparatus (MTOC) and when does it form?
It is the machine responsible for pulling apart the chromatids. It is formed during prophase
89
What is chromatin?
DNA and protein (histone) complex
90
How many base pairs of DNA are in the human body?
3 billion
91
What are cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases?
Proteins that are the 2 main regulatory molecules
92
When phase does cytokinesis occur in? Alongside of?
It occurs in its own phase. It usually occurs along with mitosis beginning in telophase
93
When are sister chromatids pulled apart?
Mitosis
94
What happens in G0?
It is the quiescent or resting state. Cells are not preparing to divide but are metabolically active
95
What phase does cytokinesis begin in?
Telophase
96
What does the cell start to do in telophase?
Divide

Bio 1113 (22 decks)

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