Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation Flashcards
Anatomy
studies the structure of the body parts and their relationships to one another
Physiology
concerns the function of the body; how the body works and carry out their life sustaining activities
Gross or Macroscopic Anatomy
the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye (heart, lungs, kidneys)
Regional Anatomy
all the structures in a particular region of the body (ie leg) are examined at the same time
Systemic Anatomy
body structure is studied system by system (ex: cardiovascular system you would look at the heart and blood vessels of the entire body)
Surface Anatomy
study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface; uses palpations
What are the subdivisions of gross anatomy?
regional, systemic, and surface anatomy
Microscopic Anatomy
deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
Cytology
study of cells
Histology
study of tissues
What are the subdivisions of microscopic anatomy?
cytology and histology
Developmental Anatomy
traces structural changes that occur throughout the lifespan
Where does physiology often focus?
on molecular or cellular level
Principle of Complementary of Structure and Function
what a structure can do depends on its specific form
What is the simplest level of structural hierarchy?
chemical level
What is the smallest living thing?
cells
Tissues
groups of similar cells that have a common function
What are the four basic tissue types?
epithelial, muscle, connective, and nervous
Epithelial Tissue
covers the bodies surface and lines cavities
Muscle Tissue
provides movement
Connective Tissue
supports and protects body organs
Nervous Tissue
provides a means of rapid internal communication by transmitting electrical impulses
Organ
discrete structure composed of at least 2 tissue types that performs a specific functions for the body
Organ System
group of organs that work together to perform a vital body function ie nervous system
What is the highest level of organization?
the organism
Organismal Level
represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive
Integumentary Sys
aka skin; encloses the whole body, protects internal organs from drying out, infection, heat, sunlight, chemical etc
Movement
includes the activities promoted by the muscular sys; also occurs when substances go through internal organs (such as blood)
Contractility
muscle cells ability to move by shortening
Reponsiveness
aka excitability; the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment then respond to them
Digestion
the breaking down of ingested food to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood
Metabolism
includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells
Excretion
process of removing wastes from the body
Growth
an increase in size of a body part or organism as a whole; usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells
What are some of our survival needs?
nutrients (food), oxygen, water, appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure
Nutrients
chemical substances taken in via the diet that are used for energy and cell building
Oxygen
nutrients is useless without oxygen because the chemical reactions needed are oxidative
Water
50-60% body weigh; most abundant chemical substance; provides watery environment for reactions and fluid base
Normal Body Temp
must be maintained; too low temps causes reactions to slow and eventually stop; too high temps cause reactions to speed up and eventually stop
What generates most of our body heat?
muscular system
Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure
force that air exerts on the body; breathing depends on appropriate pressure
Homeostasis
state of body equilibrium or stable internal environment
Receptor
first component; sensor that monitors environment; responds to stimuli (change) by sending info to control center
Control Center
determines the set point (level that variable is to be maintained); analyzes input by comparing to set point and determines appropriate response; info flows from control center to effector
Effector
carries out the control centers response to the stimulus
Negative Feedback Mechanism
most common homeostatic control mechanism; net effect is that the output of the system shuts off the original system or reduces intensity; goal of preventing severe changes in the body
Positive Feedback Mechanism
initial response enhances the original stimulus so that further reponses are even greater; ie labor/childbirth and blood clotting
Anatomical Position
body is erect with feet slightly apart, palms face forward, and thumbs point away from the body
Superior
aka cranial; toward the head or upper part of a structure on the body; ex) head is superior to abdomen
Inferior
aka caudal; away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or body; ex) naval is inferior to chin
Anterior
aka ventral; toward or at the front of the body; ex) breastbone is anterior to the spine
Posterior
aka dorsal; toward or at the back of the body; behind; ex) heart is posterior to the breastbone
Medial
toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of; ex) heart is medial to the arm
Lateral
away from the midline of the body; on the other side of; ex) the arms are lateral to the chest
Intermediate
between a more medial and a more lateral structure; ex) collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder
Proximal
closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk; ex) elbow is proximal to the wrist
Distal
farther from the origin of a body part or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk; ex) knee is distal to the thigh
Superficial
aka external; toward or at the body surface; ex) skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles
Deep
aka internal; away from the body surface; more internal; ex) the lungs are deep to the skin
Axial Part
makes up the main axis of our body; includes head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular Part
consists of appendages or limbs which are attached to the bodys axis
Sagittal Plane
vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts
What is it called when the sagittal plane is directly in the middle of the body?
midsagittal plane or median plane
What is it called when the sagittal plane is offset from the middle of the body?
parasagittal plane
Frontal Plane
lie vertically; divide the body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse Plane
horizontal; divide body into superior and inferior parts; aka cross section
Dorsal Body Cavity
protects the fragile nervous sys organs; cranial cavity (in the skull encasing the brain) and vertebral/spinal cavity (runs within bony vertebral column, encloses spinal fluid)
Ventral Body Cavity
more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities
What are the two subdivisions of the ventral body cavity?
thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic Cavity
surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest; subdivided into lateral pleural cavities (each enveloping a lung) and the medial mediastinum (contains pericardial cavity including heart and other remaining thoracic organs trachea, esophagus etc)
What separates the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity?
diaphragm
What are the two parts of the abdominopelvic cavity?
abdominal cavity (stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, etc) and pelvic cavity (bladder, reproductive organs, rectum)
Parietal Serosa
part of the double layered membrane that lines the walls of the ventral body cavity
Visceral Serosa
part of the double layered membrane that lines the outer surfaces of organs within the ventral body cavity
What quadrants is the abdominopelvic cavity divided into?
right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), left lower quadrant (LLQ)
What are the nine quadrants the abdominopelvic cavity is divided into?
umbilical region, pubic (hypogastric) region, right and left inguinal or iliac region, right and left lateral lumbar region, right and left hypochondriac region,
Umbilical Region
centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel)
Epigastric Region
superior to the umbilical region
Pubic (hypogastric) region
located inferior to umbilical region
Right and Left Inguinal or Iliac Region
lateral to the hypogastric region
Right and Left Lateral Lumbar Region
lie lateral to the umbilical region
Right and Left Hypochondriac Region
lie lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the ribs
Oral and Digestive Cavity
oral cavity contains teeth and gums, part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which opens to the body exterior at the anus
Nasal Cavity
located within and posterior to the nose; part of respiratory sys pathways
Orbital Cavitities
in the skull; house the eyes and present them in an anterior position
Middle Ear Cavity
just medial to the eardrums; contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors in the inner ears
Synovial Cavities
joint cavities; enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely moveable joints
Form _____________ function
determines
Form = ___________ and Function =___________
anatomy; physiology
Complementarity
inseparable relationship between structure and function
Levels of Organization from Smallest to Largest
chemical, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
Integumentary System
forms external body covering and protects deeper tissues from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc) receptors; and sweat and oil glands
Skeletal System
protects and supports body organs; provides framework for the muscles to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; bones store minerals
Muscular System
allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion and facial expression; maintain posture; and produces heat
Nervous System
fast acting control system; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
Endocrine System
glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
Cardiovascular System
blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dixode, nutrients, wastes, etc; the heart pumps blood
Lymphatic System/ Immunity
picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity
Respiratory System
keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; exchanges occur through the wall of the air sacs of the lungs
Digestive System
breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eleminated as feces
Urinary System
eliminates nitogenous wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood
Reproductive System
overall function to produce offspring; stops/regulates bone growth
What are the requirements of life/necessary life functions?
maintaining boundaries; movement; responsiveness; digestion; metabolism; excretion; reproduction
Catabolism
large to small breakdown
Anabolism
build large from small
Reproduction
division of cells (mitosis) for growth and repair; reproduction of off spring; creating offspring is not critical for the individual but it is for the species
What are the survival needs?
nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temp, appropriate atmospheric pressure
Nutrients
must consume nutrients; carbs proteins and lipids
Proteins
building blocks of bones, muscles, cartiledge, and skin
Fats
long term energy; energy reserve; is used if carbs are not available
Carbohydrates
main source of energy for cells
Minerals and Vitamins
minerals serve as a structural component (calcium) and vitamins are involved with metabolism (vit. A)
Oxygen
acts as a final electron acceptor in cellular respiration (ATP production); without oxygen cells can not make ATP
Water
most abundant compound in the body (50-60% of body weight); provides environment that is necessary for chemical reactions to occur; body/kidneys are good at retaining water
Normal Body Temp
temps higher or lower than 37 degrees C affect rates of chemical reactions; if too high enzymes can break down; body actually functions best one degree above 37
Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure
specific air pressure needed for breathing and gas exhange in the lungs; above sea level- lower air pressure; below sea level- higher air pressure
Homeostasis
means steady state; ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment despite changes in external environment; involves all organ systems but nervous and endocrine sys most important
What does the inability to maintain homeostasis lead to?
disease
What is involved in the homeostatic control mechanism?
receptor (sensor); control center; and effector
If you are talking about arm or leg do not use….?
superior/inferior; only use superior/inferior if referring to the trunk or head
Our anterior/posterior is what on four legged animals?
ventral/dorsal
Proximal/distal is only used for….?
arms and legs
Planes
are surfaces along which the body or structures are cut
Sections
are cuts made along a body plane; named after the plane
Oblique Plane
divides the body at an angle; any angle other than trasverse, coronal, or sagirtall
Dorsal Body Cavity
protects central nervous system (CNS) which includes the brain and spinal cord (just the cord not the nerves coming out); dorsal cavity is divided into the cranial and vertebral cavity
What is the brain and spinal cord covered in?
meninges, which are only in the brain and spinal cord they are covered in fluid
Ventral Body cavity
houses internal organs; subdivided into thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity
What are all the organs in the ventral body cavity called?
viscera
The diaphragm is not….
in the thoracic or abdominopelvic cavity; it is a dividing mark between the two cavities
What is the thoracic cavity divided into?
plural cavities; mediastinum
Plural Cavities
contain the lungs; one cavity for each lung
Mediastinum
contains the pleural cavity and houses the heart; the superior mediastinum hoses the heart, blood vessels, esophagus, trachea, etc and the inferior mediastinum is pericardial cavity
What is between the visceral membrane and parietal membrane?
serous fluid
Pericardium
membranes associated with the heart; parietal pericardium (covers pericardial cavity); visceral pericardium (lines the heart)
Pleurae
membranes associated with the lungs; parietal pleura (lines pleural cavity); visceral pleura (covers the lungs)
Peritoneum
organs of the abdominopelvic cavity; parietal peritoneum lines abdominal pelvic cavity; visceral peritoneum: most of the abdominopelvic cavity
Retroperitoneum and examples
organs that are behind the peritoneum; adrenal gland, kidneys, pancreas (except the tail), ascending and descending colon
