Chapter 1 Module Flashcards
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident rather than correct.
Perceiving Order in Random Events
Seeing pattern in random sequences.
Post-truth
Describing a modern culture where people’s emotions and personal beliefs often override their acceptance of objective facts.
False News
Misinformation that is spread intentionally.
Repetition
Statements become more believable when they are repeated.
Availability of Powerful Examples
Powerful headlines get broadcast more often, things with viivd images that color our judgements.
Group Identity and the Echo Chamber of the Like-Minded
Reading and interacting with news and people that affirm our own views and demonize new sources that do not.
Scientific Method
Curiosity, skepticism, humility
Theories lead to hypotheses lead to research that confirms, reflects, or revises theories.
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organize observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypotheses
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Operational Definitions
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedure used in a research study.
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basicv finding can be reproduced.
Exploratory Research
Investigators gather data and seek patterns that inspire theories, which can be tested with confirmatory research,
Meta-Analysis
A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.
Components of a Useful Theory
1) Organizes behaviour
2) Implies Predictions
3) Stimulates Further Research
Case Studies
A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studies in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Naturalistic Observations
A descriptive technique of observing and recoring behaviour in naturally occurring situatiosn without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Survey
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self reported attitudes or behaviours of a particular group, usually by questionning a reppresentative, random sample of the group.
Wording Effects
Small changes in the order or wording of questions make a big difference in the reception and response to the question.
Random Sampling
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Population
All those in a group being studies, from which random samples may be drawn.
Correlate
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two things.
From -1.00 to +1.00.
Positive: Two variables are moving in the same direction.
Negative: Two variabls are moving in opposite directions.
Variables
Anything that can vary and is ffeasible and ethical to measure.
Scatterplots
Graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables.
The slope of suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. (+ up, - down)
Amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
Illusory Correlations
Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.
Regression Toward the Mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.
Causation
The action of causing something.
Experiment
An investigator manipulates one or mroe factors to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process.
By random assignment of participants, teh experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
Experimental Group
The group exposesd to one version of the independent variable.
Control Group
The group not exposed to the treatment.
Contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Randomly Assign
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisiting differences between the different groups.
Double-Blind Procedure
Both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants have recieved the treatment or a placebo.
Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone.
Independent Variable
The factor that is manipulated.
The variable whose effect is being studied.
Confounding Variables
A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.
Dependent Variables
The outcome that is measured.
The variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
Descriptive
To observe and record behaviour.
Case studies, natrualistic observations, or surveys.
No control variables, single cases may be misleading.
Correlational
To detect naturally occurring relatiosnhips; to assess how well one variable predicts another.
Collected data on two or more variables; no manipulation.
Cannot specify cause and effect.
Experimental
To explore cause and effect.
Manipulate one or more factors; use random assignment.
Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables.
How can simplified lab conditions illuminate everyday life?
Through adding to principles, rather than revealing specific findings.
PreRegistration
Publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses.
Informed Consent
Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Debriefing
The postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
