Chapter 1 Human Body Organization Flashcards
Regional Anatomy
study of interrelationships of all the structures in specific body region, ex. Abdomen
Systemic Anatomy
Study of STRUCTURES that make up discrete body system, group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function
Anatomy
Strucure
Physiology
Function
Human Physiology
study of chem & physics of structures of the body & ways in which they work together to support func of life
Homeostasis
State of steady internal conditions maintained by living things
Small to Large Cellular Structures
atom -> molecule -> organelle -> cell
Human Cell Make Up
Flexible membrane that encloses cytoplasm (water-based cellular fluid) w/a variety of organelles
Tissues
cluster of cells that are similar to each other & work together to perform a body function. 4 major types of tissues: connective, muscle, nervous, epithelial
Organ
Two or more different tissues (groups of cells) combine to form an organ, ex. Bladder (smooth & skeletal muscles)
Organ System
two or more organs work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body. However, an organ may contribute to the functions of multiple organ systems, there are 11 major systems
Organismal Level
living being that has a cellular structure & can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life
What are the functions of cells internal compartments
Separated from external environmental threats, keep cells moist & nourished, separate internal body fluids from microorganisms that grow on body surfaces (lining of certain tracts),
Largest organ system
Integumentary system: skin, hair, nails
Responsiveness
ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal & external environments, ex. increase in body temp will create sweating
Movement
actions at joints of body, motion of individual organs & cells
Development
changes body goes through, ex. differentiation (unspecialized cells become specific to a function & structure), growth/repair
First Law of Thermodynamic
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only change form, 2 types of reactions
Catabolism
larger complex substances (carbs, lipids, proteins) are broken down into smaller, simpler molecules, releases energy (heat)
Anabolism
smaller, simple molecules (fatty acids, amino acids, sugars) combine into larger, complex substances, utilizing energy
Metabolism
Catabolism + Anabolism reactions w/in body, simultaneously & continuously, sum total of all chem reactions that go on to maintain organism’s health & life
How much of air is oxygen
20%
3 Classes of Nutrients
water, macros, micros
What happens when your body is not within homeostatic range of temperature?
Metabolism cannot proceed because certain proteins lose their normal structure & ability to function
Atmospheric Pressure
pressure exerted by gases (nitrogen & O2) , keeps gases w/in your body
Altitude Sickness
high altitudes exert less pressure so gasses are not pressed from your body
Decompression Sickness
gasses dissolved in blood/body tissues are no longer dissolved because of reduction of pressure on body too quickly, when moving from high pressure to low pressure too quickly the nitrogen is released from blood too quickly and creates bubbles, symptoms are headache, vision disturbances
Hyperbaric chambers
introduces oxygen at a high pressure & increases oxygen in blood to replace lost nitrogen
Conscious, voluntary movement is accomplished by
skeletal muscles
setpoint of homeostasis
physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates, if it varies & goes too high/low the body has systems in place to reduce/negate stimulus through negative feedback mechanism
what is setpoint for body temp
37c or 98.6f
negative feedback
mechanism that reverses a deviation from set point
sensor
aka receptor, in feedback system it monitors physiological value
control center
compares value to normal range in feedback system
effector
causes change to reverse the situation & return value to normal range in feedback system
negative feedback loop process
stimulus -> sensor -> control -> effector
What are the 3 reactions from the “heat-loss center” part of the brain when temp exceeds normal range?
- blood vessels in skin dilate allowing blood & heat to radiate into environment
- more water used in blood & sweat
- respirations increases & person may breathe through mouth
Positive Feedback
intensifies body’s physiological condition, ex. childbirth & reversing extreme damage to body
Identify the stimulus, sensor, & effectors of child birth
stimulus-> first contraction of labor, head moves toward cervix
Sensor-> nerve cells in cervix that monitors degree of stretching
effector-> oxytocin causes stronger contractions
Thyroid effects which process
metabolism
superior
above or higher
inferior
below or lower than another
anterior (ventral)
front/ towards front of body
posterior (dorsal)
back/direction toward back of body
lateral
side/direction toward side of body
medial
middle/toward middle of body
proximal
position in limb that is nearer to point of attachment or trunk of body
distal
point of limb that is nearer to point of attachment of trunk of body
superficial
position closer to surface of body
frontal plane (coronal plane)
divides body into anterior (front) or posterior (rear) portion
transverse plane (horizontal/axial)
divides body in upper and lower portions
sagittal plane
vertically into right & left portions
midsagittal (median)
directly down the middle
parasagittal plane (longitudinal)
line that separates left & right but is not proportionally down the middle
flexion
only in sagittal plane, ex. forward bending of neck or body
extension
posterior directed motion ex. bending head backwards, straightening from flexed position
abduction
moving limb/hand laterally away from the body, spreading fingers/toes
adduction
brings limb/hand toward/across midline of body
circumduction
movement of limb, hand, finger in circular pattern using sequential combo of flexion, adduction, extension, abduction motions
lateral rotation
rotating away from midline of body
medial rotation
rotating joint inwards to midline of body
dorsal (posterior) cavity
contains cranial and vertebral cavities
what are the 2 largest cavities
dorsal & ventral body
ventral cavity
towards the front of the body, contain the thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities
thoracic cavity
superior subdivision of anterior cavity, enclosed by rib cage, contains lungs/heart, diaphragm is floor of cavity
abdominopelvic cavity
largest cavity of the body, with in is 2 cavities & no membrane separates the abdominal cavity from the pelvic cavity
how many regions are there
9- in order from top left to bottom right,
right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region, right iliac region, hypogastric region, left iliac region
What are the 2 cavities w/in thoracic cavity
mediastinum, pleural
dorsal cavity
towards the back of the body, contain spinal & cranial cavities
serous membrane (serosa)
thin membrane that covers walls & organs in thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities& heart
parietal layers
line the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to cavity wall)
visceral layer
covers organs (viscera)
tomography
imaging by sections
what does CT stand for
computed tomography
what does MRI stand for
magnetic resonance imaging
How does ultrasonography work
transmission of high frequency sound waves into body to generate an echo signal that is converted by a computer into images
what is the function of cerebrospinal fluid
protect & cushion brain
peritoneum
envelops visceral organ of the abdominal cavity
pleura
serous membrane surrounding lungs in pleural cavity
pericardium
serous membrane that surrounds heart in the pericardial cavity
election charge
negative, 1/2000th mass of a proton or neutron
proton
positive, in nucleus
neutron
neutral, nucleus
planetary model
electrons are in fixed orbit as rings, precise distance from nucleus
electron cloud model
electrons of carbon are shown in variety of locations
elements
118 in the world, purest substance, cannot be created or destroyed
What are 3 different types of chemical bonding
ionic, covalent, hydrogen
cation
positively charged ion, a bonding results in losing an electron and has a + charge, ex. K+ potassium
anion
negative charge due to gaining an electron in bonding, ex. F- fluoride
ionic bond
ongoing, close association between ions of opposite charges, ex. table salt
How does an EKG produce waves
water inside the body breaks the ionic bond of electrolytes such as salts, these dissolved ions produce electrical charges w/in the body and the ecg reads these charges
covalent bond
sharing of electrons w/in molecules to stabilize, this bond is stronger than ionic bonds
polar molecule
molecule that contains regions that have opposite electrical charges, this occurs when atoms in a covalent bond share electrons unequally, ex. water
because of the unbalance, water molecules have a stronger attraction to each other to balance each other
hydrogen bond
weakly positive hydrogen atom already bonded to one electronegative atom (ex. oxygen in water molecule) is attracted to another electronegative atom from another molecule. ex. water molecules hydrogen bonding together
a hydrogen bond will always include a hydrogen that is already apart of a polar molecule
why is water considered a universal solvent
because of the attraction of water molecules to other types of charged ions,
it dissolves/dissociates ionic bonds
where is potential energy stored in the human body
between atoms & molecules
what is chemical energy
potential energy stored in chemical bonds, released when bonds are broken
exergonic
chem reactions that release more energy than they absorb, ex. food in an energy bar eaten
endergonic
chem reactions that absorb more energy than they release, reactions require energy input & resulting molecule stores not only chem energy in original components but also the energy that fueled reaction
mechanical energy
stored in machines, engines, human body, powers movement of matter, ex. picking up a brick and putting it into a wall, your muscles are the mechanical energy
radiant energy
energy emitted & transmitted as waves rather than matter. full spectrum is electromagnetic spectrum. ex. body uses ultraviolet energy of sunlight into vitamin D in skin cells
electrical energy
supplied by electrolytes in cells & body fluids, contribute to voltage changes that transmit impulses in nerve & muscle cells
what kind of bonds does water have
covalent & hydrogen
number of protons equals the number of what (without + or - charge)
electrons , they are attracted to each other
what are the four major elements of the body
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
why are chemical bonds important to the human body
homeostasis, signaling, energy production
Functions of water in the body
temp regulation, move solutes to cells, digestion, helps lungs expand & recoil, cushions joints
why is water hydrophilic (water-loving)
because water is polar, has + & - regions, this means it can easily dissolve ionic & polar covalent compounds
hydrophobic
“water-fearing”, nonpolar molecules can not dissolve in water
solution consists of what
solvent & solutes, they make a homogeneous mixture, equally distributed even if the ratio is not, ex. sugar in water
colloid
mixture like a heavy solution, solute particles consist of tiny clumps of molecules large enough to make liquid mixture opaque, ex. milk & cream
Suspension
liquid mixture which heavier substance is suspended temp in liquid but settles out eventually
sedimentation
separation of particles form suspension, ex. sedimentation test of blood, if RBC clump together too fast it could indicate a disease
isotonic solution
the same amount of solutes & solvents
hypertonic solutions
more solutes than solvents
hypotonic solutions
fewer solutes compared to solvents
osmoregulation
contrl of fluid balance & composition in body
dehydration synthesis (anabolism or condensation reaction)
chem reaction, 1 reactant gives up an atom of hydrogen & another reactant gives up a hydroxyl group (OH) in synthesis of new product
hydrolysis (catabolism)
water disrupts a compound, breaks bond into OH and O & then bonds to 2 separate monomers
Salts
formed when ions form ionic bonds, 1 atom gives up electrons & becomes positively charged & the other one takes electrons & becomes negatively chrgd.
what is referenced by a “heat sink”
something that absorbs body heat w/out a significant change in temp
what happens to the solid particles that are present in a suspension
they settle out over time
tonicity
refers to concentration of solutes in solution outside of the cell & effects on cellular fluid volume
acid
releases hydrogen ions into solution, strong acids ionize completely (loose all H+) ex. HCl (stomach acid) ex. weak acid; vinegar
bases
release hydroxyl (OH-) ions into solution or accepts H+ to form water. Strong bases release all hydroxyls. weak acid; bicarbonate (in digestive tract to negate HCl)
pH scale
0-6 acid, 7 neutral, 8-14 basic. Increments of 10X when moving up or down scale. Ex, a pH of 4 is 10X more acidic than a pH of 5. Water= pH 7
red litmus paper changes to blue for which
alkalines
blue litmus paper changes to red for
acidic
pH of human blood
7.35-7.45, slightly basic
what are some causes of acidosis
ineffective breathing especially ability to exhale fully, metabolic problems that reduce level of buffers (too much diarrhea, too much bicarbonate can be lost from the body allowing a back up), poorly managed diabetes (build up of ketones lead to DKA)
what causes alkalosis
respiratory disorders (CO2 levels fall too low), aspirin OD, shock, anxiety, metabolic reasons (prolonged severe vomiting, loss of chloride & hydrogen), certain meds (diuretics, antacids)
buffer
solution of a weak acid & conjugate base
organic compounds
have a carbon core w/4 electrons in valence shell, share electrons via covalent bonds, usually C-C to create long carbon chains, but they can share w other elements one of which will always be Hydrogen
functional group
group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds & function as single unit
what are the 5 most important functional groups in physiology
hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, methyl, phosphate
how do monomers form polymers
dehydration synthesis, release of water molecule
hydrated carbon
carbohydrate (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)
saccharides
carbohydrates
monosaccharide & the 5 types
monomer of carbs; glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
disaccharide
pair of monosaccharides; formed by dehydration synthesis
glycosidic bond
links monosaccharides to form disaccharide
name the 3 disaccharides
sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose (malt sugar)
can your body digest disaccharides?
no it needs to go through hydrolysis in your digestive tract
polysaccharides
unlimited monosaccharide chains
starches
polymers of glucose, long chains called amylose/branched chains called amylopectin, stored in plant based food
glycogen
polymer of glucose, stored in tissues of animals (muscles/liver)
cellulose
polysaccharide; primary component of cell wall of green plants, this is fiber, not digestible
What ATP composed of
ribose sugar, adenine base, 3 phosphate groups, produced when glucose is broken down
can carb molecules bind w/ other macros?
yes to form glycoproteins & glycolipids; membrane of cells
lipids composed of mostly
hydrocarbons
why are all hydrocarbons hydrophobic
because they are nonpolar, lipids form emulsions in water (they do not mix)
trigylceride
most common dietary lipid groups aka fat; form via dehydration synthesis
what molecules make a triglyceride compound
glycerol backbone & 3 fatty acid chains
saturated fatty acids
no double carbon bond, contain max # of hydrogen atoms, ex. butter & lard & body fat
monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acids
fatty acids w/ 1 double carbon bond, liquid at room temp, ex. plant oils
what are the benefits of triglycerides on the body
provides energy while sleeping, low/slow activities (hiking, gardening), absorption & transport of vitamins A, D, E, K, stored body fat protects & cushions bodies bones & organs
lipoproteins
compounds in which hydrophobic triglycerides packaged in protein envelopes for transport in body fluids
phospholipid
bond between glycerol component of a lipid & phosphorous molecule
phospholipids head & tail qualities
head; polar, hydrophilic. tail; neutral fatty acid, hydrophobic
steroid
aka sterol, most commonly synthesized n body is cholesterol (made in liver); hydrophobic (polar head though),
why is cholesterol important
emulsify dietary fat (bile), building block of many hormones, in cell membrane/help regulate substances in and out of cell membrane
prostaglandins
help regulate BP/inflammation, reduce risk of heart disease; derived from unsaturated fatty acids; sensitize nerves to pain (NSAIDA counteract this effect)
protein
composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
where are proteins in the body
keratin in epidermis, collagen in dermis, meninges brain & spinal cord, digestive enzymes in digestive tract, antibodies, neurotransmitters, peptide based hormones
How many amino acids are there
20
what do all amino acids consist of
hydrogen atom, alkaline amino acid NH2, acidic carboxyl COOH, variable group
how do amino acids join
dehydration synthesis, form protein polymers aka peptide bond
what kind of bond is a peptide bond
covalent bond
what is a polypeptide
an amino acid chain of fewer than 100 amino acids
how do we determine a protein’s shape
sequence of amino acid aka primary structure
what is the most common secondary structure
spiral alpha-helix, hydrogen bonds help
what is a disulfide bond
covalent bond between sulfur atoms in a polypeptide
tertiary structure
secondary structure of proteins, 3D shape
what is an example of four tertiary polypeptides
hemoglobin
what is denaturation of proteins
extreme heat, acids, bases will change structure of molecule through physical & chemical means, ex. curdling of milk w/acidic lemon juice present
what is an example of a globe and slender shaped protein
globe: hemoglobin, rod: muscle tissue
substrate
beginning of enzymatic reaction, they bind to enzymes, exactly matched enzyme for each substrate
active sites
where the substrate binds to an enzyme
nucleotide
class of organic compounds composed of 3 subunits : 1 or more phosphate group, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose, ribose), nitrogen-containing base (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, uracil)
nucleic acids
DNA/RNA made of nucleotides
What does DNA contain
deoxyribose, contain 1 phosphate & 1 nitrogen containing base, choose 1 for base: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine
RNA contains
ribose, phosphate & nitrogen base, 1 choice for base: adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil
purines
nitrogen containing base adenine & guanine, double ring structure w/ multiple nitrogen atoms
pyrimidines
baes cytosin, thymine, uracil, nitrogen containing base w single ring structure
intracellular fluid
inside of cell, phosphate groups are polar & hydrophilic so they are attracted to water inside the intracellular fluid
extracellular fluid
phosphate groups also attracted to this
interstitial fluid
extracellular fluid not contained w/in blood vessels
what makes up the cell membrane
primarily back to back phospholipids, amino acids, cholesterol
integral protein
protein embedded in membrane
channel protein
ex of integral protein that selectively allows particular materials (ions) to pass in or out
recognition
ex of integral protein, marks cells identity so it is recognized by other cells
receptor
recognition protein that binds to other moleculesl
ligand
ex of receptor, ex. nerve cells that bind neurotransmitters
peripheral proteins
inner/outer surface of lipid bilayer perform specific function
what ions and nutrients can pass through the cell wall
Ca++, Na+, K+, CL-; sugars, fatty acids, amino acids; CO2
concentration gradient
difference in the concentration of a substance across a space; will go more to less until equal, “moving down con. gradient”
diffusion
movement of particles from high con to low con, passive transport ex. O2 & CO2 & water
facilitated diffusion
diffusion process used for substances that cannot cross lipid bilayer due to size/charge, ex. glucose into cell (lrg & polar) can only pass w/ glucose transporter
filtration
uses hydrostatic pressure gradient pushes fluid from high pressure to low pressure, ex. circulatory system uses filtration to move plasma & substances across endothelial lining of capillaries & tissues
active transport
requires ATP to move substance against concentration gradient, ex. proteins that serve as pumps; sodium-postassium pump (Na+ in K+ out)
nuclear envelope
nucleus membrane, inside is nucleoplasm w/solutes
nucleolus
inside nucleus, makes RNA for ribosomes
chromatin
made of DNA & protein
histone protein
DNA wrapped around inside chromatin threads
nucleosome
single, wrapped DNA-histone complex
chromosome
DNA & protein; condensed form of chromatin
what type of cells do not divide
nerve cells, skeletal muscle fibers, cardiac muscle cells
DNA ladder composed of
alternating sugar & phosphate groups; not identical
adenine binds w
thymine
cytosine binds w
guanine
DNA replication (copying of DNA) occurs before
cell division
Stage 1 of DNA replications
initiation: 2 complementary strands are separated; helicase (special enzymes) untwist & separate into 2 strands
semiconservative
describes DNA replication; 1 strand existing, 1 strand new
stage 2 DNA replication
elongation; each strand becomes template for new strand; DNA polymerase (enzyme that adds free nucleotides) matches correct base to create new strand
stage 3 DNA replication
termination; 2 original strands are bound to their own complementary strand
sister chromatid
each copy of chromosome; physically bound to the other copy
centromere
structure that attaches one sister chromatid to another (92 chromatids) in cell
interphase
cell is not dividing during this phase
mitosis
division of genetic material during 5 different phases; cell nucleus breaks down & 2 nuclei form
cytokinesis
divides cytoplasm into 2 cells
mitotic phase
cell undergoes 2 processes; 1. completes mitosis (nucleus divided). 2. cytokinesis
prophase
loosely packed chromatin coils & condenses into chromosomes (forms sister chromatids)
centrosome
pair of centrioles
mitotic spindle
composed of centrosomes & emerging microtubules
prometaphase
transition between prophase and metaphase; microtubules enter nuclear area from mitotic spindle
metaphase
2nd stage of mitosis; sister chromatids w/attached microtubules
anaphase
3rd stage of mitosis; pairs of sister chromatids are separated
telophase
final stage of mitosis; formation of 2 new daughter nuclei
cleavage furrow
contractile band made up of microfilaments that form around the midline of the cell during cytokinesis
transcription factore
class of proteins that bind to specific genes on DNA molecule & promote/inhibit transcription
nitrogenous bases of nucleic acids are joined together by what bond
hydrogen
transcription
mRNA strand created from nucleotides matching DNA template
translation
polypeptide chain is created from tRNAs matching anticodons to mRNA codons
why are enzymes (proteins) important to the cell
speeds up biochemical reactions
gene
functional segment of DNA that provides genetic info necessary to build protein
gene expression
transforms info coded in gene to final gene product; dictates structure & function of cell
triplet
section of 3 DNA bases in row that codes specific amino acid
messenger RNA
single stranded nucleic acid carries copy of genetic code for single gene out of nucleus & into cytoplasm to produce proteins
what is the difference between DNA & RNA
RNA is single stranded, ribose sugar in RNA contains additional oxygen atom, RNA contains base uracil instead of thymine
transcription
synthesis of strand of mRNA that is complementary to gene of interest
codon
3 base sequence of mRNA & directly encode amino acids
promoter
nucleotides that trigger transcription (stage 1; initiation)
stage 2 of protein transcription
elongation; RNA polymerase unwinds DNA & aligns correct nucleic acid w/ complementary base on DNA
stage 3 of protein transcription
polymerase reaches end of gene & codes “stop” signal
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
this + proteins will compose structure of ribosome
transfer RNA (tRNA)
ferries appropriate amino acid to ribosome, builds polypeptide
polyribosome
string of ribosomes translating single mRNA strand
