Changes In Environments Exam Qs Flashcards
When insulin binds to receptors on liver cells, it leads to the formation of glycogen from
glucose. This lowers the concentration of glucose in liver cells.
Explain how the formation of glycogen in liver cells leads to a lowering of blood
glucose concentration. (3 marks)
- Glucose concentration in cell / liver falls below that in blood (plasma) which creates / maintains glucose concentration / diffusion gradient;
- Glucose enters cell / leaves blood by facilitated diffusion / via carrier(protein) / channel (protein);
Adrenaline binds to receptors in the plasma membranes of liver cells. Explain
how this causes the blood glucose concentration to increase.
- Adenylate cyclase activated / cAMP produced / second messenger produced;
- Activates enzyme(s) (in cell so) glycogenolysis / gluconeogenesis occurs / glycogenesis inhibited;
Adrenaline binds to receptors in the plasma membranes of liver cells. Explain
how this causes the blood glucose concentration to increase. (2 marks)
- Adenylate cyclase activated / cAMP produced / second messenger produced;
- Activates enzyme(s) (in cell so) glycogenolysis / gluconeogenesis occurs / glycogenesis inhibited;
.Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disease that involves damage to the myelin sheaths of neurones.
Movement in MS sufferers may be jerky or slow.
(a) Damage to the myelin sheaths of neurones can lead to problems controlling the contraction of muscles.
Suggest one reason why.
- Action potentials travel more slowly / don’t travel;
- So delay in muscle contraction / muscles don’t contract / muscles
contract slow(er);
Cannabinoids are hydrophobic molecules. In the body, they easily pass into neurones.
Explain why.
Lipid-soluble / pass through phospholipid bilayer.
Cannabinoid receptors are found in the pre-synaptic membrane of neuromuscular
junctions. When a cannabinoid binds to its receptor, it closes calcium ion channels.
Suggest how cannabinoids could prevent muscle contraction.
- Prevents influx of calcium ions (into pre-synaptic membrane);
- (Synaptic) vesicles don’t fuse with membrane / vesicles don’t release neurotransmitter;
- Neurotransmitter does not diffuse across synapse / does not bind to
receptors (on post-synaptic membrane); - No action potential / depolarisation (of post-synaptic membrane) /
sodium (ion) channels do not open / prevents influx of sodium ions.
A myelinated axon conducts impulses faster than a non-myelinated axon.
Explain this difference. (3 marks)
- (In myelinated) action potential / depolarisation only at node(s);
- (In myelinated, nerve impulse) jumps from node to node / saltatory;
- (In myelinated) action potential / impulse does not travel along whole length;
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter released in some synapses in the brain. It is transported
back out of the synaptic gap by a transport protein in the pre-synaptic membrane.
(a) Serotonin diffuses across the synaptic gap and binds to a receptor on the post-synaptic membrane.
Describe how this causes depolarisation of the post-synaptic membrane. (2 marks)
- Causes sodium ion channels to open;
2. Sodium ions enter (cell and cause depolarisation);
It is important that a neurotransmitter such as serotonin is transported back out of
synapses. Explain why. (2 marks)
- (If not removed) keeps binding (to receptors);
Accept answers based on what happens if it - Keeps causing action potentials / depolarisation (in post-synaptic membrane);
.Osmoreceptors are specialised cells that respond to changes in the water potential of the
blood.
(a) Give the location of osmoreceptors in the body of a mammal. (1 mark)
Hypothalamus.
When a person is dehydrated, the cell volume of an osmoreceptor decreases.
Explain why. (2 marks)
- Water potential of blood will decrease;
2. Water moves from osmoreceptor into blood by osmosis.
Stimulation of osmoreceptors can lead to secretion of the hormone ADH. Describe
and explain how the secretion of ADH affects urine produced by the kidneys. (4 marks)
- Permeability of membrane / cells (to water) is increased;
- More water absorbed from / leaves distal tubule / collecting duct;
- Smaller volume of urine;
- Urine becomes more concentrated.
Creatinine is a breakdown product of creatine found in muscle tissues. Apart from
age and gender, give two factors that could affect the concentration of creatinine in
the blood. (2 marks)
Muscle / body mass
Ethnicity
Exercise
Kidney disease
- In a mammal, urea is removed from the blood by the kidneys and concentrated in the filtrate.
(a) Describe how urea is removed from the blood (2 marks)
Hydrostatic pressure / description of pressure / description of how pressure generated;
Causes ultrafiltration at Bowman’s capsule /
glomeruli / renal capsule;
Through basement membrane;
Enabled by small size urea molecule;
Explain how urea is concentrated in the filtrate. (3 marks)
Reabsorption of water / by osmosis;
At the PCT / descending LoH;
At the DCT / CD;
Active transport of ions / glucose creates gradient
Describe how ultrafiltration produces glomerular filtrate. (5 marks)
- Blood pressure / hydrostatic pressure;
- Small molecules / named example;
- Pass through basement membrane / basement membrane acts as filter;
- Protein too large to go through / large so stays behind;
- Presence of pores in capillaries / presence of podocytes;
Some people who have diabetes do not secrete insulin. Explain how a lack of insulin affects reabsorption of glucose in the kidneys of a person who does not secrete insulin. (4 marks)
- High concentration of glucose in blood;
- High concentration in tubule / in filtrate;
- Reabsorbed by facilitated diffusion / active transport;
- Requires proteins / carriers;
- These are working at maximum rate / are saturated;
- Not all glucose is reabsorbed / some is lost in urine;
Some desert mammals have long loops of Henle and secrete large amounts of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Explain how these two features are adaptations to living in desert conditions. (6 marks)
- More water (from filtrate) reabsorbed / returned to blood / less lost in
urine; - By osmosis;
- From collecting duct / from end of second convoluted tubule;
- Due to longer loop of Henle;
For loop of Henle, maximum 2 marks: - Sodium / chloride ions absorbed from filtrate in ascending limb;
- Gradient established in medulla / concentration of ions increases down
medulla; For ADH, maximum 2 marks: - Acts on collecting duct / distal convoluted tubule / second convoluted tubule;
- Makes cells more permeable / inserts aquaporins in plasma membranes;