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Proverbs and Idioms flashcards
1
Q

What are three types of lexical change?

A
  1. Archaisms
  2. Dated Lexis
  3. Neologisms
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2
Q

What are the nine types of eponyms?

A
  1. Coining
  2. Compounding
  3. Blending
  4. Clipping
  5. Acronyms
  6. Initialisms
  7. Affixation
  8. Borrowing
  9. Eponyms
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3
Q

What does coining mean?

A

Invented

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4
Q

What does compounding mean?

A

Made up of two or more existing words

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5
Q

What does blending mean?

A

Made up from parts of two or more existing words

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6
Q

What does Clipping mean?

A

Formed from parts of existing words

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7
Q

What does Acronym mean?

A

Formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a complete word

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8
Q

What does Initialism mean?

A

Formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as letters

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9
Q

What does Affixation mean?

A

Formed by adding a prefix or a suffix to an existing word

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10
Q

What does Borrowing mean?

A

From foreign languages

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11
Q

What does Eponym mean?

A

Used to name discoveries/ inventions or brand names becoming generic

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12
Q

What is an example of coining?

A

Haagen Dasz

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13
Q

What is an example of compounding?

A

Whiteboard

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14
Q

What is an example of Blending?

A

Spork

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15
Q

What is an example of Clipping?

A

Phone

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16
Q

What is an example of an Acronym?

A

AIDS

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17
Q

What is an example of an Initialism?

A

HIV

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18
Q

What is an example of Borrowing?

A

Pizza

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19
Q

What is an example of an Eponym?

A

Sellotape

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20
Q

What are the six examples changes in semantics?

A
  1. Semantic Change
  2. Amelioration
  3. Pejoration
  4. Narrowing
  5. Broadening
  6. Bleaching
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21
Q

What is Semantic Change?

A

A word fully changing it’s meaning. E.g. gay going from meaning happy to meaning homosexual

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22
Q

What is Amerlioration?

A

A word gaining more positive connotations. E.g. Naughty meaning mildly troublesome when it used to mean the worst of the worst

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23
Q

What is Pejoration?

A

A word gaining more negative connotations. E.g. Notorious changing from note worthy to meaning bad fame

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24
Q

What is Narrowing?

A

A word losing meaning. E.g. Meat changing from meaning all food to just food from the body of an animal

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25
Q

What is Broadening?

A

Gaining meaning. E.g. mouse (Gained the sense of a computer thingy)

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26
Q

What is Bleaching?

A

A word losing the extent of itself. E.g. Horrible becoming bad instead or horrifying

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27
Q

What does syntax change mean?

A

Changes in the order of words

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28
Q

What is Displacement?

A

The order of the words in a clause is unusual.

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29
Q

What is an example of Displacement?

A

“I saw the leaders GREAT AND GOOD”

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30
Q

What are Displaced Negators?

A

Negators after the verb

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31
Q

What is an example of a displaced negator?

A

She likes it NOT

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32
Q

What is Inversion?

A

Two words are swapped over

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33
Q

What is an example of inversion?

A

“There’s a surprise, SAID HE”

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34
Q

What is a Median Adverbial?

A

Adverbs in the middle of a sentence

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35
Q

What is an example of a Median Adverbial?

A

I FOR YOU shall do this

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36
Q

In the past what was English syntax like?

A

Mch more flexible

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37
Q

What order does English syntax now follow?

A

S.V.O.C.A

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38
Q

What is wrong with the following sentence?: “I want to quickly call in here”

A

Split infinitive

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39
Q

What is wrong with the following sentence?: “I have no one with whom to go”

A

A preposition at the end of the clause

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40
Q

What type of inflection is “est”?

A

Archaic 2nd person singular present tense inflection

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41
Q

What type of inflection is “eth”?

A

Archaic 3rd person singular present tense inflection

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42
Q

Conjugate the archaic form of the infinitive in brackets: “Let the song be ___ (to sing)”

A

Sungen

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43
Q

What is an unusual inflection of the verb “to be” called?

A

Archaic subjunctive

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44
Q

What is an example of the archaic subjunctive?

A

Though he WERE dead, yet shall he live

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45
Q

What is the Periphrastic “do”?

A

The inclusion of the verb “do” where we wouldn’t use it today

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46
Q

What is an example of the Periphrastic “do”?

A

I do love thee
She did marry him

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47
Q

What did “for” used to mean?

A

Because

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48
Q

Give an example of “for” being used as a conjunction (because)

A

He went for he had to

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49
Q

What are the archaic pronouns/determiners?

A

Thou, thee, they, theyself, thine, ye

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50
Q

When was English spelling standardised?

A

The mid 18th century

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51
Q

What was I interchangeable with?

A

Y, J

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52
Q

What was y interchangeable with?

A

I

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53
Q

Give an example of I and y being interchangeable

A

Fayth/faith

54
Q

What was j interchangeable with?

A

I

55
Q

Give an example of J and I being interchangeable.

A

Iudge/judge

56
Q

What was v interchangeable with?

A

U

57
Q

What was u interchangeable with?

A

V

58
Q

Give an example of v and u being interchangeable.

A

Euer/ever

59
Q

What was the letter þ called?

A

Thorn

60
Q

What was the letter ð called?

A

Eth

61
Q

What was the letter æ called?

A

Ash

62
Q

What was the letter ſ called?

A

Long S

63
Q

What was the letter 3 called?

A

Yogh

64
Q

What happened to “ed” endings?

A

They contracted to ‘d

65
Q

What did English used to capitalise?

A

The important words of the sentence

66
Q

How did English used to capitalise street names?

A

With only the first word being capitalised.
E.g. “Smith-street” instead of “Smith-Street”

67
Q

What are the protected characteristics?

A

Gender, ethnicity, disability, sexuality and age

68
Q

What does contemporary English avoid due to political correctness?

A
  1. Words expressing negative attitudes based on protected characteristics
  2. Gratuitous modifiers
  3. Gendered nouns
  4. Generic male forms
  5. Non-equivalent parallels
69
Q

What is an example of a word expressing negative attitudes based on protected characteristics?

A

Cripple

70
Q

What is an example of a gratuitous modifier?

A

Lady doctor

71
Q

What is an example of a gendered noun?

A

Manageress

72
Q

What is an example of generic man?

A

Man evolved about 200000 years ago

73
Q

What is an example of non-equivalent parallel?

A

Master and mistress

74
Q

What does reclaiming mean?

A

The use of an abusive term by the group it was used to abuse

75
Q

What are five reasons for language change?

A
  1. New inventions and developments
  2. Changes in knowledge, understanding and ideas
  3. Movement of people
  4. Communities of practice
  5. Change from above
76
Q

Who did the Reflectionism and Determinism Theory?

A

Sapir Whorf

77
Q

What does Reflectionism say?

A

Language reflects thinking

78
Q

What does Determinism say?

A

Language determines thinking

79
Q

What is an example of Reflectionism?

A

The use of racist words reflects prejudice attitudes

80
Q

What is an example of Determinism?

A

Changing racist language will change prejudice thinking

81
Q

What does Pinker argue?

A

That thought is independent of language

82
Q

What did Pinker call his Meta-Language?

A

Mentalese

83
Q

Who did the Euphemism Treadmill?

A

Pinker

84
Q

What does Pinker’s Euphemism Treadmill say?

A

Concepts, not words, are in charge of meaning. If you give a concept a new name, the name becomes affected by the concept

85
Q

Where does change to English usually happen?

A

In peripheral forms of English

86
Q

What are examples of words that have semantically broadened due to the development of technology?

A

Crash, virus, bug, window

87
Q

What happened between 1400 and 1600?

A

The Great Vowel Shift

88
Q

During the Great Vowel Shift, how did the pronunciation of “out” change?

A

From /u:t/ to /aʊt/

89
Q

Who did Functional Theory?

A

Michael Halliday

90
Q

What did Halliday’s Functional Theory say?

A

Language changes to fulfill the functions society demands of it

91
Q

Who studied Informalisation?

A

Goodman and Fairclough

92
Q

What did Goodman claim?

A

That language forms that were traditionally reserved for close personal relationships are now used in wider social contexts

93
Q

What did Fairclough claim?

A

That spoken language has risen in status and prestige as a more informal written model has also risen in usage

94
Q

Who studied Random Fluctuation and Cultural Transmission?

A

Hockett

95
Q

What did Hockett claim in his Random Fluctuation and Cultural Transmission Theory?

A

That language constantly has to adapt to new situations and speakers. This inevitably throws up random innovations which spread from speaker to speaker

96
Q

What is a criticism of Hockett’s Random Fluctuation and Cultural Transmission?

A

Changes are not random e.g. all verbs lost Eth/est inflections

97
Q

What does Lexical Gap Theory claim?

A

Words are created to “fill a gap” where a word does not currently exist. E.g. the feeling you get when you’re just about to sneeze

98
Q

What is a criticism as Lexical Gap Theory?

A

It only explains Lexical change, some Lexical gaps remain unfilled

99
Q

What does Substratum Theory say?

A

When new speakers learn a language, they will learn it imperfectly and will pass these imperfections on to future generations.

100
Q

What are criticisms of Substratum Theory?

A
  1. It only explains a narrow range of changes
  2. Change happens when there aren’t a significant number of new speakers
101
Q

Who did the S-Curve Model?

A

Chen

102
Q

What are the three stages of Chen’s S-Curve Model?

A
  1. Initiation
  2. Expansion
  3. Termination
103
Q

What happens during the Initiation Stage of Chen’s S-Curve Model?

A

Change initially occurs at a slow pace creating the initial curve of the “S”

104
Q

What happens during the Expansion Stage of Chen’s S-Curve Model?

A

The rate of change increases speed as the innovation becomes more common and accepted in the language

105
Q

What happens during the Termination Stage of Chen’s S-Curve Model?

A

The rate of change slows down again once it has fully integrated into the language and is widely used

106
Q

Who did the Wave Model?

A

Bailey

107
Q

What did Bailey’s Wave Model say?

A

Distance (geographical, temporal and social) affects language change

108
Q

What did Bailey call the place where a change started?

A

The Epicentre

109
Q

According to Bailey’s Wave Model who is most affected by change?

A

The people closest to the epicentre

110
Q

Who criticised Bailey’s Wave Model?

A

Trudgill

111
Q

What did Trudgill say about change?

A

Innovations spread from cities to towns and miss out intervening villages

112
Q

What did Jonathan Swift’s “Proposal” object to?

A
  1. Shortenings e.g. “mob”
  2. Unnecessary contractions e.g. “disturb’d”
  3. Neologisms e.g. “banter”
113
Q

Who attempted to fix spellings and definitions?

A

Johnson (Dictionary)

114
Q

What did Lowth’s Grammar say?

A
  1. Objected to “thou”
  2. Differentiated “will” and “shall”
  3. Differentiated “who” and “whom”
  4. Prepositions should come before a noun
  5. Infinitives should not be split
  6. Comparative and superlative should not be used
115
Q

What were the four stages of The Process of Standardisation?

A
  1. Selection
  2. Elaboration
  3. Codification
  4. Implementation
116
Q

What happened in the Selection Stage of The Process of Standardisation?

A

The East Midlands dialect of English was chosen as the basis for Standard English

117
Q

What happened in the Elaboration Stage of The Process of Standardisation?

A

The selected dialect was used for an increasing range of functions e.g. law

118
Q

What happened during the Codification Stage of The Process of Standardisation?

A

The rules of spelling, the definitions of words and agreed norms of grammar were decided upon and written down e.g. Johnson’s Dictionary

119
Q

What happened during the Implementation Stage of The Process of Standardisation?

A

The Standard in used in and insisted upon by writers and academics who criticise those who do not use the Standard form

120
Q

Who did the Social Bonding Theory?

A

William Labov

121
Q

What happens during the first step of Labov’s Social Bonding Theory?

A

A small group use language a little differently from the rest of the population

122
Q

What happens during the second step of Labov’s Social Bonding Theory?

A

The difference in pronunciation becomes a signal of identity

123
Q

What happens during the third step of Labov’s Social Bonding Theory?

A

Others who wish to be identified with the group adopt the difference

124
Q

What happens during the fourth/final step of Labov’s Social Bonding Theory?

A

The change ends up affecting all words that possess the same sound

125
Q

Who talked about Benign Prescriptivism?

A

Clayton

126
Q

Who used metaphors to explain OTHER PEOPLE’S attitudes to language change?

A

Jean Aitchison

127
Q

What does Aitchison’s “Damp Spoon Syndrome” mean?

A

It implies that people have become lazy with language

128
Q

What does Aitchison’s “Crumbling Castle View” claim?”

A

The people view English as a beautiful old castle that was deliberately constructed and was once complete and perfect but is now falling apart and needs to be preserved

129
Q

How does Aitchison criticise “The Crumbling Castle View”?

A

There has never been a time when English reached its ultimate “peak of perfection”

130
Q

What does Aitchison’s “Infectious Disease Assumption” mean?

A

It is the view that people “catch” language change from people around without meaning or wanting to

131
Q

What was the Inkhorn Controversy?

A

During the 16th and 17th Century, the English lexicon began to expand and some writers objected to the new words, finding them pretentious and artificial

132
Q

Who described the new words as “inkhorn terms”

A

Thomas Wilson

English Own (11 decks)

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