Ch 5.1-5.2 Flashcards
nonassociative learning
occurs when organism is repeatedly exposed to 1 type of stimulus
does not contain any reinforcement or punishment
2 types of nonass learning
habituation
sensitization
habit
action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes auto
habituation
we still have the same stimulus, but with every progressive episode of the stimulus , the response decreases
decrease in response to stimulus after repeated presentations
dishabituation
occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed
person is no longer accustomed to the stimulus
if stimulus is presented again, the person will react to it as if it was a new stimulus
recovered or restored behavioral response where reaction towards known stimulus is enhanced
sensitization
opposite of habituation
response increases with every episode of the stimulus
increase in responsiveness due to either a repeated application or a particularly aversive or noxious stimulus
produces a more exaggerated response
sensitization vs habituation
sensitization is usually temporary , may not result in any type of long term behavior change
habituation form of learning that does not require concious learning or motivation
desensitization
stimulus that previously evoked an exaggerated response ( sth that we were sensitized to) no longer evokes an exaggerated response
diminished emotional responsiveness to negative or positive stimulus after repeated exposure to it
desensitization or sensitization
vs habituation or dishabituation
desens: change in physiological response
( sensory receptors start or stop responding )
dishab: change in cognitive response ( brain does on does not realize something is there
desens vs habituation
desensitivation downreg or decreased response in receptors , causes less sensation
habituation mental process that you no longer conciously notice the stimulus, your ears still pick it up but your brain ignores it after a while
associative learning
process of learning in which one event, object or action is directly connected with another
2 categories of associative learning
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
classical conditioning definition
aka respondent condtioning
process in which 2 stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes
refers to the learning process which results from the pairing of a biologically potent stimulus with a neutral stimulus
ex of classical conditioning
pavlovs dogs
Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate at the sound of the ringing bell
natural behavior of dogs
dogs naturally salivate at the sight and smell of food, it is a biological response which prepares dogs for food consumption
stimulus ( food) naturally produces this response ( salivating) dogs do not intrinsically react to the sound of a bell in any particular way
Pavlovès experiment
paired the sound of the bell ( auditory stimulus) with the presentation of food to the dogs and after a while, the dogs began to salivate to the sound of the bell even in the absence of food
process of pairing the two initially unrelated stimuli changes the dogs response to the sound of the bell over time and they become conditioned to salivate when they hear it. dog effectively learned that the sound of the bell was meant to announce food
neutral stimulus
stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response
stimulus which does not elicit any response on its own
neutral stimulus for Pavlov
sound of the bell prior to the experiment
unconditioned stimlus ( US)
is stimulus which initiated unconditioned response ( UR)
unconditioned refers to the fact that no learning took place to connect the stimulus to the response
US for Pavlov
presentation of food is US and UR is the salivation
conditioned stimulus
CS
originally neutral stimulus ( bell) that is paired with unconditioned stimulus ( food) until it can produce a conditioned response ( salivation) without the unconditioned stimulus ( food)
the neutral stimulus once it gains the ability to elicit a conditioned response
conditioned response
CR
learned response to the conditioned stimulus
same as unconditioned response, but now occurs without the unconditioned stimulus
CR for doggs
salivating at the sound of the bell is the conditioned response
Three stages of conditioning
1 before
2 during
3 after
before conditioning
unconditioned stimulus produces unconditioned response
neutral stim produces no unconditioned response
before for pavlov
food produces salivation
bell produces no salivation
during conditioning
neutral stimulus is associated with the unconditioned stimulus to form the conditioned stimulus
during stage the UCS must be associated with the neutral stimulus on a number of occasions or trials in order for learning to take place
after conditioning
conditioned stimulus creates a conditioned response
processes by which classically conditioned responses are developed and maintained
acquisition extinction spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination
acquistion and dog ex
process of learning the conditioned response
time during the experiment when the bell and food are always paired
stimulus
anything that stimulates your senses
anything you can hear, see, smell touch
unconditioned
innate process
anything that you can do naturally
conditioning
learning
extinction
occurs when conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired so the conditioned response eventually stops occuring
when CS is presented continuously without the UCS
extinction ex with pavlovs dogs
after the dogs have been conditioned to salivate at the sound of the bell, if the sound is presented to the dogs over and over without being paired with food, then after some period of time, the dogs will eventually stop salivating at the sound of the bell
spontanous recovery
when extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some time
does not last very long
spont ex with pav dogs
if the behavior of salivating to the sound of the bell becomes extinct in a dog, and it is then presented to the dog again after some amount of lapsed time and the dog salivates, the conditioned response was spontaneously recovered
generalization
process by which stiuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response
tendency for a stimulus, similar to the conditioned stimulus, to elicit a response similar to the conditional response
more similar the stimulus is to the CS, the stronger the CR will be
generalization ex with pav dogs
if dogs salivate to the sound of a chime or a doorbell, even though those were not the same sounds as the conditioned stimulus, the behavior has been generalized
discrimination
opp of generalization
occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli
the conditioned response only occurs for conditioned stimuli
when animal knows to make a response to some stimuli but not all stimuli
discrimination ex with pav dogs
if the dogs do not salivate at the sound of a buzzer or a horn, they have differentiated those stimuli from the sound of a bell
adaptive value to generalization
allows us to make appropriate responses to similar stimuli
adaptive value of disc
it is important to respond differently to similar stimuli
would not want to respond to all loud sounds in the same way
concept of extinction therapy
used by therapists to treat phobias
if you are afraid of heights
expose you to different heights and eventually, the stimulus of heights will not elicit the same response of fear
taste aversion
caused by nausea and or vomiting
powerful long lasting association
development of taste aversion
org eats a specific food and becomes ill a few hours later will generally develop a strong aversion to that food
most org develop an aversion to smell or taste, but possible to develop aversion to the sight of the food
function of taste averson
prevent org.m from consuming sth that might be toxic or poisonous in the future
response happens to be one that does not need a long acquisition phase ( typically acquired after one exposure) and has a very long extinction phase or never extinguishes
operant conditioning
uses reinforcement ( pleasureable consequences) and punishment ( unpleasant consequences) to mold behavior
classical and operant similarity
timing is everything
classical: important for NS to be paired with UCS for them to occur together or very close together in time in order for the neutral stimulus to become coonditioned
operant: imp for reinforcement or punishment to occur around the same time as the behavior in order for the learning to occur
BF Skinner
conducted research in operant conditioning
worked with animals and designed an operant conditioning chamber ( later called Skinner box) that he used to shape animal behavior in series of experiments
Skinner experiments reward
one series of experiments, hungry rat would be placed inside SKinner box that contained a lever
food pellet will drop into the box if the rat pressed the lever
often first time the rat pressed the lever was by mistake, but after discovering that food would appear in response, the rat would continue to do so until satiated
Skinner exp punishment
in another series of exp, Skinner box is wired to give a painful electirc shock until a lever was pushed
rat would run around trying to avoid the shock at first, until accidentally hitting the lever and causing the shock to stop
in repeated trials, rat would quickly push the lever to end the painful shock
Reinforcement
anything that will increase the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated
behavior is supported by reinforcement
2 main types of reinforcement
positive
negative
positive reinforcement
some sort of desirable stimulus that occurs immediately following a behavior
pos reinforcement rat case
food pellet is pos rein for the hungry rat because it causes the rat to repeat the desired behavior ( push the lever)
neg rein
some sort of undesirable stimulus that is removed immediately following a behavior
neg rein rat case
electric shock is neg rein for rat because causes the rat to repeat the desired behavior ( push the lever) to remove the undesirable stimulus ( painful shock)
reinforcer
anything that increases a desired behavior
+ and - increase desired behavior but process by which they do so is diff
+ rein and stimulus
rein by adding a + stim (desirable)
- rein and stim
rein by removing a - stim ( undesirable)
+ rein and - rein
+ adds
- subtracts
amygdala
imp in - conditioning
hippocampus
imp in + conditioning
key distinction for reinforcement
primary
secondary reinforcers
primary rein
unconditioned
somehow innately satisfying or desirable
rein that we do not need to learn to see as reinforcers because they are integral to our survival
biological
ex of prim rein
food + because it is required for survival
avoiding pain and danger - renforcer b/c necessary for same reason
2nd rein
conditioned
learned to be rein
neutral stimuli that are paired with prim rein to make them conditioned
only has reinforcing qualities when linked to the prim rein
ex of 2nd rein
if every time child reads a book, she recieves a stamp, after collecting ten stamps, she can exchange these for a small pizza
pizza, being food, is the primary reinforcer and the stamps are secondary reinforcer
child learns to find stamps desirable because they help her get something she wants- pizza
pairing of 2nd rein
if after collecting 10 stamps, instead of recieving a pizza, the child recieves a coupon that is good for one small pizza, in this case, both stamps and coupon are 2nd rein
almost any stim can be a 2nd rein, must be paired with prim rein in order to produce learned behavior
operant conditioning relies on
reinforcement schedule
types of reinforcement schedule
continuous or intermittent
continuous schedule
every occurrence of behavior is reinforced
intermittent schedule
occurrences r sometimes reinforced and sometimes not
cont rein results
rapid behavior acquisition or rapid learning
also results in rapid extinction when rein ceases
inter rein results
slow acquisition or behavior , greater persis or resistance to extinction of behavior over time
maintaining behaviors: schedules
initially condition a behavior using cont rein scheudle and maintain that behavior using inter rein
ex of main behavior
dog can be trained to sit in response to hand motion in cont rein where a treat is given every time the dog sits, once dog has suff.ly mastered this behavior , u can switch to an intermittent rein schedule, where dog receives a treat only occasionally when it sits in response to hand motion
four types of inter schedules
fixed ratio
variable ratio
fixed interval
variable interval
fixed ratio schedule
provides rein after set number of instances of the behavior
fixed ratio rat ex
rat recieves food pellet every 10 times it pushes the lever after it has been conditioned , rat will demonstrate a high rate of response ( will push lever rapidly, many times to get food)
variable rate sched
provides the rein after an unpredictable number of occurrences
variable rate gamb ex
rein may be unpredictable but behavior is repeated with hope of a rein
fixed and variable rate
both produce high response rates
chances that behavior will produce the desired outcome ( treat or a jackpot or some other rein) increases with the number responses ( times behavior is performed )
fixed interval schedule
provides rein after set period of time that is constant
behavior will increase as rein interval comes to an end
fixed int employee ex
employee reinforced by attention from boss, employee mght work hard all time , thinking boss will walk by at any second and see the hard work and provide + rein ( attention) once employee learns boss only walks at the top of the hour every hour, employee may be ineffective worker thruout the day, but more effective as the top of the hour approaches
variable interval schedule
rein after inconsistent amount of time
schedule produces slow steady behavior response rate, because amount of time it will take to get rein is unknown
var int boss ex
the boss walks by at unpredictable times each day, employee does not know when they will recieve atttention ( rein) , thus employee will work in a steady efficient manner thruout the day, but not very quickly
employee knows it doesn’t matter how quickly he works at any given time, because pot rein is tied to an unpredictable time schedule
cont deff
rein given after each every single response
cont response rate
slow
cont extinction rate
fast
cont notable behavior patterns
best way to teach new behavior but has fastest rate of extinction
fixed ratio deff
rein given after set number of responses
fixed ratio response rate
fast
fixed ratio extinction rate
medium
fixed ratio notable behavior patterns
post rein pause may be an analogue to procrastination
fixed interval deff
rein given after set amount of time
fixed interval response rate
medium
fixed interval extinction rate
medium
fixed interval notable behavior patterns
long pause in responding following rein, followd by accelerating rate
variable ratio deff
rein given after variable number of responses
variable ratio response rate
fast
variable ratio extinction rate
slow
variable ratio notable behavior patterns
slowest rate of extinction
behavior persists longer despite lack of reinforcer
variable interval deff
rein given after variable amount of time
variable interval response rate
fast
variable interval extinction rate
slow
variable interval notable behavior patterns
tends to produce a low to moderate steady rate of responding
shaping desired behavior
parents shape behavior by reinforcing the smaller intermediate behaviors necessary to acheive the final desired behavior
shaping desired behavior learning to walk
parents will reinforce child trying to pull themselves up, so she will try again
once she mastered pulling herself up and standing while holding something , they will reinforce child’s attempts to stand while not holding anything and so on until the child is able to walk on her own
punishment vs reinforcement
rein increases behavior
pun decreases behavior
punishment
process by which a behavior is followed by a consequence that decreases the likelihood the behavior will be repeated
positive punishment
application or pairing of an undesirable stimulus with the behavior
ex of positive punishment
if a cadet speaks out of turn at military boot camp, drill sargeant makes them do 20 pushups
- punishment
involves the removal of desirable stimulus after the behavior has occured
ex of - punishment
if child breaks a window while throwing baseball in house, they lose TV privilleges
+ vs - punishment
+ punish: adds
- punish: subtracts
when shaping behaviors
rein and punishment used in conjunction, it is uncommon for punish to have as much of a lasting effect as rein
removal of punish
no longer effective
punishment instructs
what not to do
reinforcement instructs
what to do
better alternative to encourage behavior change and learning
operant conditioning processes
acquisition extinction spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination
two types of aversive control
escape
avoidance
escape
individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior
helps reinforce the behavior so they will be willing to engage in it again
perform a behavior to terminate an ongoing , unpleasant, aversive stimulus
escape ex child temper
if a child does not want to eat her vegetables , aversive stimulus, so she throws a temper tantrum
if parents respond by not making the child eat the vegetables, the child will learn by behaving in that specific way, she can escape that particular aversive stimulus
shaping
succesively reinforcement behaviors which lead up to the target behavior
aversive control
term used to describe situations in which a behavior is motivated by the threat of sth unpleasant
avoidance learning
occurs when a person performs behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented
ex of avoidance learning child
child notices Mom cooking vegetables for dinner and fakes an illness so mom will send him to bed with ginger ale and crackers
diff between avoidance and escape learning
some sort of signal is given before the aversive stimulus is presented
behaviorism explanation of psychological phenomena
all phenomena are explained by describing observable antecedents of behaviors and its consequences
behaviorism and the mind
brain as black box which does not need to be incorporated into discussion, not concerned with unobservable events occuring within the mind
cognitive psychology focus
on brain, cognitions ( thoughts) and their effects on how people navigate the world
cognitive psychologists and learning
do not see learning as simply due to stimulus pairing and reinforcement
although importance is acknowledged , cognitive psychologists do not believe all learning can be explained this way
ex of learning not explained by rein and stim
if child learns he can slide on his belly to reach a toy he wants under the bed and he learns that a grabbing tool can be used to pick up his toys from the ground, the child will figure out that he can combine the two behaviors to get a toy which is under the bed out of his reach
popularity of behaviorism
extreme form lost favor, as reaction to behaviorism, cognitive psychology emerged
insight learning
describes when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways
ex of insight learning child and toy
2 behaviors ( sliding and using the grabbing tool) were previously reinforced because he got the toy he wanted each time. a new situation was presented, toy was out of reach under the bed, and he was able to combine previously reinforced behavior in a novel way to attain the desired outcome
latent learning
sth is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior util it is required
previous unseen behavior can manifest quickly when required
ex of latent learning route to school
if a child in middle school always recieves a ride to school from dad, he may latently learn the route to school, even if he never demonstrates that knowledge
one day, when his dad is on a business trip, the child is able to navigate to school along the same route by bike
behavioral learning and conditioning
conditioning is not only behavioral learning
operant conditioning purpose
certain behaviors are reinforced and the likelihood of that behavior being repeated increases as a result
cognitively , operant conditioning
causes the establishment of an expectation for a future reinforcer, so the process may not be exclusively behaviorial, there is thinking involved in this kind of learning, expectations may be present in stimulus generalization
classical vs operant definition
classical: org learn associations b/w stimuli that they dont control
operant: org learn associations b/w behaviors and resulting consequences
classical vs operant response
classical: involuntary, automatic
operant: voluntary
classical vs operant acquisition
C: associating 2 stimuli
O: associating response with consequence ( reinforcement or punishment)
classical vs operant extinction
C: conditioned response decreases as conditioned stimulus is continually presented alone
O: response decreases without reinforcement
classical vs operant spontaneous recovery
C: reappearance, after a rest period, of a response
O: reappearance, after a rest period, of a response
classical vs operant generalization
C: response to stimulus similar ( but not identical) to the conditioned stimulus
O: response to similar stimulus is also reinforced
classical vs operant discrimination
C: ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and other stimuli
O: learning that certain responses, not others will be reinforced
learning constraints
learning is also limited by biological constraints
learning
change in behavior as a result of experience
ex of biological constrain to learning
chimpanzees can learn to communicate using basic sign language, but they cannot learn to speak, in part because they are constrained by lack of specialized vocal chords that would enable them to do so
belief regarding learning
could occur using any 2 stimuli or any response and any reinforcer
associative learning most easily acheived
using stimuli that are somehow relevant to survival, not all reinforcers are equally effective
learning and biology
learning occurs more quickly if it is biologically relevant
aversion defies many principles of associative learning
because it occurs after 1 instance, or can occur after a significant delay of hours , it is often that any aversion can last very long, often undefinitely
nausea association failure
researchers tried to associate the feeling of nausea with other things such as a sound or a light, but they were unable to do so
As of brain involved in learning
different As of the brain are involved with learning different type of things
cerebellum and learning
cere involved in learning how to complete motor tasks
amyg and learning
involved with learning fear responses
short term memory
lasts for seconds to hours
can be potentially converted to long term memory through process called consolidation
newly acquired info
knowlege that a reward follows a certain behavior, temporarily stored in short term memory and can be transferred into long term memory under the right conditions
long term potentiation
occurs when following brief periods of stimulation, an increase in synaptic strength between two neurons leads to a stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli
connections between neurons strengthen
1 ex of synaptic plasticity
Bobo doll experiment set up
conducted by albert bandura
bobo doll is a blow up doll that you can punch
group of children in lab doing an arts and crafts experment, suddenly a man appears and starts kicking and punching the inflatable doll and shouting hit it kick it for 10 minutes
bobo doll experiment part 2
required the children feel frustrated
gave the children an impossible problem to solve
observing how many children would come up to bobo doll in a room full of toys and kick it
the ones who did not only kicked it, they yelled the same things the man shouting previously
conclusion of bobo doll experiment
children can learn thru observed behavior
majority of the kids were agressive to the doll
but not all the kids were agressive
second experiment similar to bobo doll
set up TV in lab and on the TV kids saw a bobo doll and someone being agressive to the doll and hitting it
video showed the person getting punished for acting to the doll that way the children saw the consequence of the behavior
placed in a room with the toys, some of the kids kicked the doll,
researchers bribed the kids which participate in the kicking with stickers if they imitate the behavior
able to mimic the behavior taht they saw
learning performance distinction
learning a behavior and performing a behavior are 2 different things, you can learn a behavior but not perform the behavior
not performing the behavior does not mean that you didnèt learn the action
Banduraès social cognitive theory necessary components for modeling
Attention Memory Imitation Motivation 4 components of the theory ( Mnemonic: AM I MOTIVATED)
Attention
pay attention to the thing that should be modeled
memory
remembering what u payed attention to
imitation
reproducing what you payed attention to
motivation
having a good reason to imitate
synaptic plasticity
ability of synapses to change their strength
learning and LTP
when sth is learned, synapses between neurons are strengthened and process of LTP begins
LTP and circuit neurons
neurons involved in circuit develop an increased sensitivity ( sending neuron needs less prompting to fire its impulse and release its neuro and or receiving neurons have more receptors for neuro, which results in increased potential for neural firing after a connection has been stimulated
increased potential duration
can last for hours or even weeks
synaptic strength
process by which memory is consolidated for long term memory so learning can occur
LTP at a synapse
requires post and pre synaptic neurons
rein activates
limbic circuits that involve memory, learning and emotions
circuits are strengthened as dopa floods the system, making it more likely the behavior will be repeated
after LTP
passing electrical current thru the brain does not affect the memory associations between the neurons involved, although other memories will be wiped out
reason why person who recieves a blow in the head will lose memory preceding the concussion
LTP has not had a chance to occur and leave traces of memory connections while old memories whcih were already pretentiated, remain
long term memory storage
involves permanent changes to the brain, including structural and functional connections between neurons
long term memory storage includes
new synaptic cleft connections between neurons , permanent changes in pre and post synaptic membranes and a permenant increase or decrease in neuro synthesis
patterns in regions of brain involved with memory storage
greater branching of dendrites in regions of the brain thought to be involved with memory storage
protein and memory formation
drugs that block protein synthesis appear to block long term memory formation
as learned behaviors change
our synapses change to
environmental feedback
hen animals change their behaviors based on experience
innate behaviors
behaviors we know how to do instinctively ( or our body just does without us conciously thinking about it )
always the same between members of the same species
synapse
junction between neurons through which the neurons use neuros to communicate
pre synaptic neuron
before the synapse
post synaptic neuron
after the synapse
innate behaviors
instincts
things we know how to do instinctively or our body just does without us consciously thinking about it not because someone taught us to do them
always same between members of species
innate vs learned
innate: performed correctly the first time the individual performs the action in response to the stimulus
learned: behaviors which are learned thru experience
types of innate behavior
simple
complex
three types of simple innate behavior
reflexes
taxis and kinesis
ex of reflex with light
when light is shone directly at your eye, you blink which is a reflex
taxis
movement where organism moves towards or away from a stimulus
purposeful movement
ex of taxis light
a lot of bugs flying towards the light
kinesis
random movement
ex of kinesis light
group of rats may respond by scurrying in many different directions
types of complex innate behaviors
fixed action patterns
migration
circadian rhythm
fixed action pattern
instinct ingrained in the bird
ex of fixed action pattern
mating dance used to attract mates
fixed behaviors that they already know how to do to attract a mate
migration
birds flying south in winter
innate behavior
circadian rhythm
body’s biological clock
regulates things like your sleep wake cycle
waking up early to sing
learned behavior
something that is acquired thru experience
most common types of learned behavior
habituation
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
insight learning
observational learning
aka social learning or vicarious learning
learning thru watching and imitating others
modelling
one of the most basic mechanisms behind observational learning
observer sees the behavior that is being performed by another person, later with the model in mind the observer imitates the behavior he or she observed
ex of modelling adult appearance
as an adult your appearance may be based on models in society you dress, talk and walk like your friends
likelihood of imitating a modeled behavior
based on how succesful some1 finds the behaviors to be or the type of reinforcement that the model received for his behavior
however ind.ls may choose to imitate behaviors even if they do not observe the consequences of the modelès behavior
Bandura experiment consequence and action
even when the children saw the consequences of the adultès behavior, they tended to imitate the behavior that they saw
human imitation
later studies suggested that humans are prone to imitation and modeling and we are particularly likely to imitate those that we perceive as similar to ourselves, as sucessful or as admirable in some way
mirror neurons identified in
various parts of human brain
including premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex and inferior parietal cortex
mirror neur in monkeys
in monkeys, the mirror neurons fire when the monkey performs a task, as well as when monkey observes another monkey performing the task
mir act.vn theory
connecting the sight and action of movement, that they are programmed to mirror
understand theory mir
some postulate that mirror neurons help us understand the actions of others and help us learn through imitation
vic theory mir
mirror neurons in humans are responsible for vicarious emotions such as empathy and that a problem in the mirror neuron system might underline disorders such as autism
vicarious emotions
feeling what others feel even when you donèt feel it
obs theory mir
many believe that they are somehow involved in observational learning in animals , including humans
obs learning affected by
personality differences and psychological disorders
ex of obs learning diff
much of research on observational learning focuses on violence and how observing violence increases violence in society, but not everyone who observes violence is violent
cognition plays role in how we use what we learn
persuasion
one method of attitude and behavior change
elaborate likelihood model explains
when people will influenced by the content of the speech ( or the logic of the arguments ) and when people will be influenced by other, more superficial characteristics like appearance of the orator or the length of the speech
three key elements which have impact on persuasiveness
message characteristics
source characteristics
target characteristics
message char
features of the message itself, such as logic and number of key points in the argument
also includes more superficial things such as the length of the speech or article and its grammatical complexity
source char
of the person or venue delivering the message , such as expertise , knowledge and trustworthiness are also of importance
ex of importance of source char study
ppl more likely persuaded by a major study described by the New England Journal of Medicine than in the pages of the local supermarket tabloid
target char
of person receiving message, such as self esteem, intelligence, mood , and other such personal characteristics have imp influence on whether message is perceived as persuasive
ex of imp of target char
some studies suggested that those with high intelligence are less easily persuaded by 1 sided messages
2 cog routes under ELM
central and peripheral route
central route
people are persuaded by the content of the argument
rumnate overkey features of argument and allow features to influence decision to change point of view ( POV)
per route
ppl focus on more superficial or secondary char of speech or orator
people are persuaded by attractiveness of orator, length of speech, whether orator is an expert in his field and oher features
ELM: criteria for choosing central
ppl will choose cent when they are intersted in the topic ( motivated to listen to the logic of the argument) and not distracted, thus focusing their attention on the argument
ELM: if cond for cent not met
pl will choose per route, and if persuaded at all, will be persuaded by more superficial factors
messages processed via central vs peripheral
central more likely to have longer lasting persuasive outcomes
audience factors ( including target characteristics) cent vs per
cent: high motivation and ability to think about the message
per: low motivation or ability to think about the message
processing approach cent vs per
cent : deep processing, focusing on quality of message arguments
per: superficial processing, focused on surface features such as the commès attractiveness or number of arguments presented
persuasive outcome cent vs per
cent: lasting change that resists fading and counterattacks
per: temporary change that is susceptible to fading and counterattacks
social cognitive pers incorporates elements of
cognition, learning and social influence
social cognitive theory
theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their env. t
diff between social cognitive and behaviorism
unlike behaviorism ( where environmenŧ controls us) , cogntion ( how we process our environment) is also importanŧ in determining our behavior
attitude
learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way
social cognitive theory focuses
on how we interpret and respond to external events and how our past experiences, memories and expectations influence our behavior
3 factors which can influence a personès attitude change
observational
learning and environmental
recirprocal determinism
interacŧion between a personès behaviors ( concious actions) , personal factors ( individual motivational forces or cognitions; personality differences that drive a person to act) , and environment ( situational factors)
3 ways that individuals and environments interact
- people choose env.ts
- personality
- personality and how they react
people choose their env.ts
and ex
which in turn shape them
for ex, college that you choose to attend had some sort of a unique impact on you
personality shapes
and ex
how people interpret and respond to their environment
ex. people prone to depression are likely to view their jobs as pointless
personality influence and ex
personality influences the situation to which she then reacts
how you treat someone infleunces how they will treat you
ex. if you call customer service because you are furious about something, you are more likely to receive a defensive or aggressive response on the phone
behavioral genetics
attempts to determine the role of inheritance in behavioral traits, the interaction between heredity and experience determines an individual’s personality and social behavior
which cells in humans do not contain DNA?
mature red blood cells do not contain DNA
human DNA vs other species
99.9 % of DN ai shared
genotype
genetic makeup of organism
phenotype
observable characteristics and traits
behavioral genetics seeks to understand
how the genotype and environment affects the phenotype
most pheno are influenced by
several genes and by the environment
ex of pheno influenced by genes
tallness is a resultl of the interaction between several genes and the result of proper nutrition at the key developmental stages
so if someone has the genes for tallness but is malnourished, they will not grow nearly as tall as their genotype indicates
to det the influence of genes vs environment
behavioral geneticists use 2 types of studies on humans : twin studies and adoption studies
twin studies
compare the traits in monozygotic ( identical) and dizygotic ( fraternal ) twins
monozygotic twins ( MZ)
have essentially identical genotypes and almost identical environment starting from the womb
dizygotic twins ( DZ)
share roughly 50% of their DNA ( they are genetically no more similar that ordinary siblings ) and an arguably similar environment, starting in the womb
why one of MZ will develop a disease while the other will not
although MZ have same genes, but they do not always have the same number of copies of a gene; this may help explain why one develops a disease while the other does not
MZ female vs male twins
X inactivation in female somatic cells is not identical between MZ female twins ,therefore MZ female twins are not quite as identical as male MZ twins
MZ twins in same placenta
about 70% share a placenta in the womb, and in some instances, one twin will receive more blood flow , resulting in differential nutrition and growth between the two
MZ twins in seperate placentas
30% MZ twins develop sep placentas, therefore may have slightly diff prenatal conditions as well
classical twin study attempts to asses
variance of a phenotype ( behavior, psychological disorder) in a large group in order to estimate genetic effects ( heritability) and environmental effects ( both from shared environment or experiences and unshared/ unique environment or experiences)
rel. p between genes and phenotypes
if a study shows that MZ twins share the phenotype more than DZ twins genes likely play a role
is the case for most traits
ex of genes effect on phen MZ twins
If 1 MZ twin develops Alzheimerès disease, other MZ has 60% chance of developing it as well
ex of genes effect on phn DZ twins
if 1 DZ twin develops the disease, the other one only has a 30% chance of developing it
adoption studies
studies the effect of genetics and environemnt on phenotype
ad st 2 groups
genetic relatives
env.t rel vs
purpose of 2 groups in ad st
adopted individuals will be compared with both groups to determine if they are more similar to their genetic relatives or their environmental
adv of a st over twin st
ad st can help elucidate the impact of heredity and env on phenotype
twin st can only examine the impact of gen.cs because the environment is similar for each twin
personality of ppl who grow up together
many studies showed that ppl who grow up together do not resemble much of each otherès personality
adopted children personality
more similar to biological parents than to their adopted parents traits such as agreeableness, extraversion, introversion, tend to pass from parents to biological offspring
adopted children similarities to adopted families
attitudes, values, manners, faith and politics
identical twins seperated at birth and raised independently similarities
tastes, physical abilities , personality, interest, attitudes and fears
despite no contact
twin and ad sts used
to estimate heritability for many phenotypes
heritability pertains
to how 2 individuals differ, not to 1 individual
ex of heritability intelligence
estimated heritability of inteligence ( variation of intelligence scores attributable to genetic factors is approx 50%
hertability
statistic used in breeding and genetics which estimates how much variation in a phenotypic trait in a pop is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population
meaning of heritability of intel is 50%
does not mean that your genes are responsible for 50% of your intelligence, rather, it means that heridity is responsible for 50% of the variation in intelligence between you and someone else
means that genetic differences account for 50% of the variation in intelligence among all people
studying geno pheno int.n in animals
is easier because the genes and env.t can be more tightly controlled
transgenesis
introduction of exogenus or outside gene or knockout genes to alter genotype while controlling environment
transgenic models
useful for helping researchers understand what happens when a certain gene is present
trans model ex mice
mice had human cancer genes introduced can help researchers study how and when cancer devlops and how cancer responds to various treatments in mouse model ( before trying the treatment on humans )
usefulness of knock out animal models
help researchers understand what happens when a gene is absent
ex knockout mice
missing gene known to prevent cancer can also help researchers understand how and why cancer develops and how it responds to treatment
capacity for adaptation
one of the most important adaptive aspects of all life
genes and environment
work together
genes also respond to env t
genes might be turned on in one env.t and turned down in another
genes and env.t obesity ex
in response to ongoing stressor , one gene might begin producing more of the neuro involved in overeating, which leads to obesity , gene is not hardwired to produce obesity, but interaction between gene and env.t results in obesity
temperament
emotional excitability
ex of temperament infants
infanst who are considered difficult have a temperament that is more irritable and unpredictable while those that are considered easy have a more placid, quiet and easygoing temperament
heredity and environment play a role
in many complex human traits , such as personality, of whhich temperament is one aspect, intelligence, motivation
commo def of intelligence
ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to a new situation
no neurological trait that defines intelligence
Francis Galton beliefs regarding intel
in 1800s
believed intel had a strong biol basis and could be quantified by testing certain cognitive tasks
genetically determined intelligence
Alfred BInet test background and purpose
in 1900s
admin intel tests to school children in france with goal of dev.g a measure to examine which children were in need of special education
BInet intell test was created by
BInet and his collaborator Theodore Simon and later revised by psycho at Stanford University and renamed Stanford- BInet Intelligence scale or intelligence quotient ( IQ ) test
Charles Spearman
first coined term for general intel ( also referred as g)
early 1900s
Spearman and BInet similarities
believed that intel could be strictly quantified thru cognitive tests and those who posessed high general intelligence would do well on lots of diff measures of cog ability
Raymond Cattell proposal
in mid 20th century
2 types of intelligence fluid intelligence ( Gf) and crystalized intelligence (Gc)
fluid intel (Gf)
ability to think on your feet and solve novel problems
Gc cryst intel
ability to recall and apply already learned info ( majority of what you are expected to do in school)
HOward Gardner theory
multiple intel , which breaks intel into 8 diff modalities
countered the idea that intel is a single general ability that can conveniently measured and quantified with an IQ test
8 diff mod.s of howard gardner theory
logical linguistic spatial music kinesthetic naturallist intrapersonal interpersonal
Edward THorndike
1st to propose the idea of social intelligence in the 1920s
defined it as the ability to manage and understand people
HG theory and social intel
HG theory led to renewed interst in the concept of social intelligence
emotional intel
concept which was introduced in the 1990s
involves being well attuned to oneès own emotions, being able to accurately intuit (understand or workout by instinct) the emotions of others and using this info as a guide for thinking and acting
emotional intel and social intel are correlated to
good leadership sill, good interpersonal skills, positive outcomes in classroom situation and better functioning in the world
heritability of intel
is significant
scores on intel tests by identical twins
correlate highly
adopted childrenès scores on intel tests
closely resemble the scores of their birth parents than their adoptive parents
intel is a social construct
way it is measured is determined by cultural context and what is emphasized
life experience effect on performance on IQ tests
malnutrition, sensory deprivation, social isolation, trauma affect normal brain dev.t during childhood
early intervention and schooling can increase intelligence scores
significance of diff in how various groups perform on intelligence test scores
attributed to biases within tests or related to outside confounding factors
controversial findings regarding racial groups and scores on intelligence tests
higher scoring people are more likely to attain high levels of education and income
potentially due to environmental factors such as availability of quality schooling
lower extreme intel scores
fall below 70
2 sd below avg of 100
intellectual disability
individuals who not only have a score below 70 but also have difficulty adapting to everyday demands of life
causes of intellectual disability
sts it is a product of a physical cause such as downès syndrome or an acquired brain injury
mild intellectual disabilities education
in least restrictive environments which they can learn and are integrated into regular classrooms with accomodations if possible
gifted education criteria
upper extreme, high intelligence scores
ind dev t determined by
individual development is determined by complex interplay of biology, psychology, society and culture
biological influences
inherited genome, prenatal development, sex related genes, hormones and physiology
psychological influences
gene env interactions, prior exp s , responses evoked by other by our own traits ( such as our temperament or gender) and beliefs, feelings and expectations
social and cultural influences
includes families , peers, friends, cultural ideals, cultural mores and culutural norms
