Ch 4.1-4.3 Flashcards
Selective attention
process where one input is attended to while the rest are tuned out
focusing our conscious awareness on a particular stimulus or group of stimuli
Why is selective attention necessary?
Because we do not have the capacity to pay attention to everything in the environment
resource model suggest that we have limited capacity to pay attention and so we must devote our resources carefully
Dichotic listening set up
one way to study selective attention
person wears headphones and each ear hears a different dialogue
individual is instructed to listen to info coming into 1 ear, called the attended channel and ignore input of the other ear, the unattended channel
Observation from dichotic listening experiment
people are able to remember some of the message from the attended ear but lose almost everything from the unattended ear
same observation is made with visual stimuli ; when people are told to focus on one visual aspect, they may miss other visual details
Daniel Broadbent`s impression of the brain
processing system with limited capacity and sought to map out steps in creating memories from raw data
Broadbent filter model of selective attention
inputs from environment first enter a sensory buffer
one of inputs is selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input ( ex. sensory modality) ( a selective filter exists which is based on physical properties of the sensory input)
other sensory info stays in sensory buffer briefly, but then quickly decays
at this point, the info is still raw data that has just been filtered, it is not yet transformed
next the info enters short term memory storage, where semantic ( meaning making) processes occur
What is the purpose of the thereotical filter in Broadbent`s model?
keep us from being overwhelmed or overloaded with info
Broadbent`s theory and he dichotic listening task
only info from the attended ear is allowed thru
if input in the sensory buffer does not go thru the filter, the theory proposes that it remains briefly and then quickly decays and dissapears
Cocktail party effect
Phenomenon in which we are able to catch information of unimportance from previously unattended channels
cocktail party effect and filter model of attention
effect not accounted for by the filter model
thus, adaptations were made of he model which suggests that the info from the unattended ear is not completely tuned out, but dampened
Anne treismans attenuation model
can be seen as a revision of Broadbent’s theory
tried to account for cocktail party effect
believed that rather than a filter, mind has an attenuator which works like a volume knob and turns down unattended sensory input
Difference between attenuation model and filter model
rather than eliminating the other sensory input using a selective filter, the attenuation model has an attenuating filter in its place, which allows for some of the other sensory input to pass throughother aspects are the same
Broadbent model ( arrow diagram)
inputs- sensory store- sensory filter ( based on physical properties of the sensory input) - higher level processing - working memory
Treisman model ( arrow diagram)
inputs- sensory store- attenuating filter ( based on physical properties of the sensory input) - higher level processing - working memory
Selective priming
another explanation for cocktail party effect
suggests that people can be selectively primed to observe something, either by encountering it frequently or having an expectation
if one is primed to observe something, one is more likely to notice when it occurs
more sth is primed, more we pick it up despite distractions
Spotlight model
spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within an individual s visual field
beam describes the movement of attention , which precede the corresponding eye movements
shifting of attention requires us to unlock the beam from its current target, move the focus and lock onto a new target
priming
an implicit memory effect where exposure to one stimulus influences response to another stimulus
binding problem
problem of how different aspects are assembled together and related to a single object, rather than something else in the visual field
solution to binding problem
visual attention
if our visual attention is on a particular object such as a cup then the feature detectors input of shape, color, etc will be related to the object it is attended to
when people are distracted while viewing 2 items, they may have issues with binding , the color of one object may be attributed to the other
divided attention
concerns when we are able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously
resource modality of attention
have limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks , both modality- specific resources and general resources
when are tasks not accomplishable at the same time
if the resources required to perform multiple tasks simultaneously exceeds available resources to do so
Three factors associated with performance on multi tasking
task similarity
task difficulty
task practice
task similarity
two similar tasks use the same modality for processing so they would interfere with each other
therefore, the more similar the two tasks are, the more difficult they would be to perform together
task difficulty
if task more difficult, requires more resources in general, and would be hard to do simultaneously with another task without passing resource capacity
task practice
practice diminishes task resource demand so that we may free up those resources to allow for multitasking
suggests that tasks tend to become automatic with practice and no longer need mechanisms of control to oversee them
tasks are well learned routines that require fewer resources
which brain A is responsible for muscle memory or ability to perform motor tasks unconciously?
cerebellum
behaviorism
consumed primarily with the link between stimulus and response
assumes all behaviors are either reflexes produced by response to certain stimuli in the environment or consequence of the individual’s history together with the individual’s current motivational state and controlling stimuli
information processing models
focuses on what happens between the ears
based on the idea that humans process the info they receive rather than merely responding to stimuli
assumptions of information processing models
info is taken in from the environment and processed thru a series of steps including attention, perception , storage into memory
Alan Baddeley’s model goal:
better define short term memory, which he renamed working memory
Alan Baddeley’s model
working memory consists of 4 components: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer and central executive
Phonological loop
allows us to repeat verbal information to help us remember it
visuospatial sketchpad
allows us remember visuospatial information through the use of mental images
episodic buffer
theorized to integrate info from phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad along with a sense of time
responsible for combining info from a variety of sources into coherent episodes
central executive
overseer of the entire process, orchestrates the process by shifting and dividing attention
Jean piagnet
one of 1st developmental psychologists who studied cognitive development in children ; argued against prevailing belief that children were mini adults in thought processes and abilities
disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait
regarded cognitive development as process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment
schemas
mental frameworks that shape and are shaped by our experience
piagnet thought the process of cognitive development involved forming these
a way of organizing knowledge
What happens to existing schemas when we encounter new experiences?
We can assimilate experiences by conforming them into existing schemas
or accommodate by adjusting our schemas to take into account the new experiences
Example for existing schemas and new experiences
Young girl believes there is a monster under the bed but her parent turns on the light to reveal that there is nothing there, the girl can take two paths.
She can assimilate the experience by believing that the monster still exists but it runs away from light, or accommodate the schema by agreeing that there must be no monster
4 developmental stages of piagnet s theory
- sensorimotor stage
- preoperational stage
- concrete operational stage
- formal operation stage
sensorimotor stage of piagnet theory
from birth to roughly age 2
babies and young infants experience the world thru their senses and movement , such as looking, mouthing and grasping.
learn about object permanance, demonstrate stranger anxiety
object permanence
the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight
stranger anxiety
distress when confronted by an unfamiliar person
preoperational stage of piagnet theory
roughly from 2- 7
children learn that things can be represented through symbols such as words and languages
accompanies their learning during pretend play and development of language , but they lack logical reasoning
also egocentric , do not understand that others have different perspectives
able to think about things symbolically ( ability to make an object such as a word stand for something other than itself)
concrete operational stage of piagnet theory
7-11
children learn to think logically about concrete events
helps them learn the principle of conservation
grasp math concepts during this time
marks beginning of logical thought
can conserve numbers ( age 6) , mass ( age 7 ) and weight ( age 9)
principle of conservation
idea that the quantity remains the same despite changes in shape
ex: if water from a wide bowl is poured into a thin cylinder, it still has the same volume despite the difference in height
formal operational stage
from age of 12 through adulthood
people learn abstract reasoning ( i.e. hypothesizing) and moral reasoning
develop ability to think about abstract concepts and logically test hypotheses
cognitive abilities during early and middle adulthood
most cognitive abilities remain stable or increase
cognitive changes in late adulthood (3)
beyond age of 60
- elderly show memory declines in recall while recognition abilities
- time base tasks can also be challenging for older adults, such as regimen involving taking medication 3 times a day
- older adults also have slower info processing abilities, evidenced by slower reaction times and speech
recall
involves retrieving info from memory without any clues
recognition
involved retrieving info from memory with clues
role of culture in cognitive development
social relationships
ex
possible that individual learns social relationships and converts these into mental capabilities
developing individual and environment are in reciprocal relationship in which social context can shape thinking and behavior
ex. expression of thoughts is limited to thinkers language
influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development : both interact genetics sociocultural tests of cognitive
heredity and environment interact during course of individualès life to create a developmental trajectory
genetics provides the biological predisposition or raw material of an individual
sociocultural influences help mold and channel this potential into the development of particular capabilities
amount and quality of schooling and richness of childès environment can heavily influence performance on tests of cognitive functioning
biological factors that affect cognition sensory info frontal lobe hippocampus amygdala and limbic
sensory info provides raw material for cognitive processes and is transmitted to parietal, occipital, temporal lobes
frontal play role in executive functions including planning, organizing, inhibiting impulses and flexible thinking
hippocampus: formation of new memories
amygdala and rest of limbic: manage emotional arousal needed to provide motivation and alertness neccessary to complete tasks
Problem solving approaches
trial and error algorithm (step by step approaches) heuristics ( mental shortcuts) combination insight ( sudden flash of inspiration when we are not actively thinking about a problem)
Barriers to effective problem solving
confirmation bias
fixation
confirmation bias
tendency to search for info which only confirms our preconceived thinking rather than info that might not support it
why is confirmation bias a barrier to effective problem solving?
it can prevent you from approaching a problem from multiple perspectives because you are more likely to view it from one way, your way
leads to faulty decision making, one side info which leaves u with incomplete picture of the situation
fixation
inability to see the problem from a fresh perspective
sometimes results from existence of mental set , tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past although they may not apply to the current situation
functional fixedness
another type of fixation
tendency to perceive the function of objects as fixed or unchanging
heuristics
mental shortcuts
can increase efficiency in decision making , although mostly helpful, they can lead to errors in judgement
availability heuristic
when you make a decision about something based on the examples that are most available in your mind
based on how easy something comes to mind
representative heuristic
has to do with our generalizations about people and events
helps us make a decision by comparing info to our mental prototypes
difference between availability and representative heuristics
availability relies more on our memory of specific instances
representative has to do with our generalization of people and events more on generalization than specific examples
availability based on how readily examples come to mind
belief bias
tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic
we accept conclusions that fit our beliefs and reject assertions that do not fit with their beliefs
belief perserverance
tendency to cling o beliefs despite the presence of contrary evidence
overconfidence
overestimation of accuracy of knowledge and judgements
a result of the use of intuitive heuristics and tendency to confirm preconceived beliefs
overconfidence example
after hearing a classmate completed an assignment quickly, along with their belief that a particular class is easy, students can be overconfident in how much time it would take to complete assignments or write papers, estimating that they would take less time than they actually do
Influence of how information is framed on people ( example )
One study found that consumers are more likely to buy meat labelled as 75% lean rather than 25% fat
Conciousness
awareness that we have of ourselves, our internal states and the environment
What is conciousness important for ?
reflection and exert control by directing attention
always needed for novel and complex tasks
alertness and arousal
involve the ability to remain attentive to what is going on
what can affect alertness?
impaired by variety of disorders including narcolepsy, attention deficit disorder, depression and chronic fatigue syndrome
varies within a 24 hour cycle naturally
reticular formation
aka reticular activating system ( RAS)
set of connected nuclei in the brains of vertebrates which is responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions
controls alertness and arousal
polysomnography
PSG
multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep
PSG includes:
electroencephalogram (EEG)
electromyogram (EMG)
electrooculogram (EOG)
and other physiological indicators of sleep
EEG
measure electrical impulses in the brain
EMG
measure the skeletal muscle movements
EOG
measures eye movement
EEG for a person in the relaxed state
EEG shows alpha waves, which have low amplitudes and high frequencies ( 8-12 Hz)
alpha waves are first indicator that person is ready to drift off to sleep: body relaxes, person feels drowsy and closes their eyes
Stage 1 sleep EEG
first stage of non REM ( rapid eye movement) sleep
EEG is dominated by theta wave: low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency ( 3-7 Hz)
Stage 1 sleep EMG
moderate activity
Stage 1 sleep EOG
slow rolling eye movements
Stage 1 sleep characteristics
person becomes less responsive to stimuli and has fleeting thoughts
