Ch. 2 - Language & Thinking Flashcards
Grammar
The set of rules for how symbols can be combined into communication.
Here is a sequence of symbols: Dhvsfjzld
Why is this grammatically incorrect in English?
9 consonants cannot be put together without a vowel in the English language (a rule in English)
Semantics
The meaning of words and sentences.
Why are semantics necessary?
Symbols by themselves have no meaning. Semantics give symbols (which form words) meaning.
Generativity
Symbols can be combined in different ways to generate infinite messages.
Displacement
Language can be used to communicate about things that are not physically present (past, future, imaginary).
Name the properties of language (6)
-Symbolic
-Structured
-Grammar
-Semantics
-Generativity
-Displacement
Surface Structure of Language
Ways symbols are combined (the syntax of language)
Deep Structure of Language
The underlying meaning of combined symbols (semantics provide the rules for connecting symbols).
Name a similarity & a difference between these 2 sentences:
“The cat chased the rat”
“The rat was chased by the cat”
-Same deep structure
-Different surface structures
Morphemes
Combinations of phonemes which are the smallest units of meaning
Phonemes
Smallest units of separable sound
Are there more morphemes or phonemes in the English language?
Morphemes! There are over 100 000 morphemes, but only about 44 phonemes in the English language.
Pragmatics
Knowledge of the practical aspects of using language. Best practice is for people to change their clarity and tone depending on their audience.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Coined by Noam Chomsky - Universal grammar shared by all humans. All languages have a common deep structure.
At what age range can humans vocalize the entire range of phonemes?
1-3 Months Old
At what age range can humans discriminate sounds specific to their native language
6-12 Months Old
What are the 4 stages children go through before they can speak in sentences?
-Cooing
-Babbling
-Single Words (first words)
-Telegraphic Speech
Cooing
Typically occurs in children 0-4 months of age. Includes crying, laughing, heavy breathing
Babbling
Typically occurs in children 5-12 months of age. Repeating syllables, but not yet producing any recognizable words.
Broca’s Area
In the frontal lobe of the brain. Associated with speech formation.
Broca’s Aphasia
Impairment in the production of speech
Wernicke’s Area
In the temporal lobe of the brain. Associated with interpreting what spoken words mean.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
Impairment in the comprehension of language.
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Language determines what we are able to think about.
Why is the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis flawed?
Some languages don’t have words for certain concepts. But we can still understand concepts without specific words.
Waggle Dance
An example of animal communication (non-verbal). When a bee finds food, they return to other bees to communicate the direction, distance, and quality of food.
Hockett’s Design Features
Features that separate human language from animal communication.
-Vocal Auditory Channel
-Displacement
-Learnability
Vocal Auditory Channel
Language is produced through the vocal tract and transmitted as sound. Language is perceived through the auditory channel.
Learnability
Users of one language can learn to use another language.
Analogical Representations
Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of what they represent. Examples: map, clock, drawing
Symbolic Representation
Mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas. Examples: words, peace symbol, etc.)
Propositional Thought
Verbal sentences we say or hear in our minds. It expresses a proposition or statement.
Imaginal Thought
Images that we can see, hear, or feel in our mind.
Motoric Thought
Mental representations of motor movements (eg. throwing an object)
What are the 3 modes of thinking?
-Propositional Thought
-Imaginal Thought
-Motoric Thought
Concepts
Basic units of semantic memory. Can be acquired through explicit instruction or through our own observations of similarities and differences among various objects and events.
Prototypes
-The most typical and familiar members of a category or class
-They only note similarities among objects
-Children’s early concepts are based on prototypes
What is an issue of using prototypes?
They differ as a result of personal experience. There is considerable arbitrariness and room for individual differences. For instance, one person’s terrorist can be another person’s freedom fighter.
Exemplars
-Considers all examples of a concept you have ever seen
-New examples are compared to all other examples
-An exemplar can change every time a new example is encountered (experiences matter)
Schema
An organized pattern of thought about some aspect of the world. They help you build a mental framework of your perspective of the world. It is possible to oversimplify a concept (stereotype). Example: Easy vs Hard exams.
Script
Mental framework concerning the sequence of events that usually unfolds in a particular order. They provide knowledge to guide and interpret actions. Example: The implications of going to a movie theatre.
Stages of Problem Solving
- Interpret/Understand the problem
- Generate hypothesis or possible solutions
- Test the hypothesis/solutions seeking to disconfirm one or more of them
- Evaluate results, revise (repeat 1-3) if necessary
Mental Set
Tendency to stick to solutions that have worked in the past. Can result in less effective problem solving if a more efficient solution exists (often the case).
Functional Fixedness
Having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects. Can hinder problem solving due to ideas using objects in an unorthodox way not being considered
Algorithms
Formulas and procedures that automatically generate correct solutions if followed correctly (eg. cooking recipe).
Heuristic
General problem solving strategies we apply to certain classes of situations. Attempt to solve a problem using known facts.
Means-ends Analysis
Identify differences between the present situation and the desired state and make changes to reduce those differences.
Subgoal Analysis
Formulating subgoals/intermediate steps toward a solution.
Availability Heuristic
Base judgements and decisions based on the availability of information in memory.
What is the problem with the availability heuristic?
If something comes to mind easily, we may exaggerate the likelihood that it could occur. See the “word with r” example in slides.
What is the best way to test our ideas?
Try to find evidence that disconfirms your ideas rather than evidence that supports your ideas.
Confirmation Bias
Peoples’ tendency to look for evidence that confirms their beliefs while ignoring evidence that could disconfirm their beliefs knowingly or unknowingly.
Overconfidence
Tendency to overestimate one’s correctness in factual knowledge, beliefs, and decisions. A reason why people don’t challenge their beliefs.
