Ch. 1 - Methods Flashcards
Empiricism
Using evidence from the senses as the basis for conclusions.
What are 3 sources of evidence for behaviour?
-Experience
-Intuition
-Authority Figure
What are the steps in The Scientific Process?
- Identify a Question
- Form a hypothesis & gather information
- Test hypothesis by conducting research
- Analyze the data
- Build a body of knowledge (theory)
What needs to be done if no supporting evidence is found after building a theory?
The theory must be revised by redoing the scientific process
What issues arise when empiricism is not employed to gather evidence for behaviour?
The evidence becomes biased
Properties of a Normal Distribution
-Symmetrical
-Central Peak (mean at centre)
-Tails off to both ends
Positively Skewed Distribution
Long right tail with mean, median, and mode to the left of the centre.
mode<median<mean
Negatively Skewed Distribution
Long left tail. The mean, median, and mode are to the right of the centre.
mean<median<mode
Variability
How much measurements differ from one another (spread)
Range
Value of the largest measurement in a frequency distribution minus the smallest.
Range = Largest - Smallest
Standard Deviation
The average difference between the measurements in a frequency distribution and the mean of the distribution.
Peer Review Process
Academic papers are reviewed by experts in the field the paper explores. Reviewers provide feedback on your work (often negative, but constructive) of changes to make before releasing the paper to the public.
Law of Parsimony
AKA Occam’s Razor. The best explanation for a phenomena is the one that makes fewer assumptions (the simpler theory)
Operational Definition
Defines a variable in terms of specific procedures used to produce or measure it. It reduces subjectivity by clarifying what a variable means for a particular study.
How do we know that a measurement is good?
It is reliable and valid (need reliability and validity)
Reliability
Can always produce the same score when measuring the same thing. Example: a weighing scale gives the same measurement every time given the same object)
Validity
The measure must be conceptually related to the purpose of the study. Hence, the study measures what it claims to measure. Example: hours of sleep used to measure how sleep is related to irritability.
Self-report Measures
Participants report their own knowledge, beliefs, feelings, experiences, or behaviour. Responses are often collected through a questionnaire (survey) or interview
What is an issue with self-report measures
They rely on participants responding honestly which does not always happen.
Social Desirability Bias
Peoples’ tendency to respond in a socially desirable way to make a good impression. People over report social desirable behaviours and under report less desirable behaviour.
How can social desirability bias be counteracted?
-Make self-reports anonymous
-Use physiological tests whenever possible
Why should observers code their observations?
-Can record different categories
-Ensures reliability
-Can differentiate observations
Demand Characteristics
People answering in a way they think the researcher wants them to respond to fit what they believe is the experiment’s purpose.
Internal Validity
A causal relationship is trustworthy and not influenced by other factors or variables.
External Validity
The extent to which the results from a study can be generalized to other situations, groups, or events.
Psychological Tests
Specialized tests designed by psychologists to measure particular variables. Examples include personality tests, intelligence tests, and neuropsychological tests.
Descriptive Research
Seeks to explain how an individual behaves, especially in natural environments. Examples include case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys.
Case Study
Descriptive research method that involves intensive examination of an atypical person
Naturalistic Observation
Observing people/animals in their natural environment.
What are the advantages of naturalistic observation
-It provides a rich description of behaviour
-Avoid demand characteristics
What are the limits to naturalistic observation?
-Cannot inform a person that they are being observed (ethical concern)
-Requires long periods of observation just to get a single measure of a desired behaviour
Representative Sample
A sample that reflects the important characteristics of the population.
Random Sampling
Every member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen (eg. random number generator).
True/False: Surveys can be used to draw conclusions about cause and effect?
False. There could be other variables linked to a participants choice that are not controlled (eg. a participant’s mood while responding to a survey).
Correlational Research
Looking for an association between two or more measured variables.
Bidirectionality Problem
Using correlations, we cannot determine the direction of a relationship. We can only determine if a relationship exists and the direction and magnitude of the correlation. Thus, correlation does not equal causation!
Third-variable Problem
Two variables may be related to one another because they are both causally related to a third variable.
Give an example of the third-variable problem
Ice cream consumption and drowning are related to each other. However, a third variable not considered is the weather. When the weather is warm, more people eat ice cream and go swimming.
Correlation Coefficient (r)
Describes the relationship between variables using a direction (+/-) and a magnitude (value between -1 and 1). The strength of a correlation is indicated by the absolute value of r.
Positive Correlation
An increase in one variable relates to an increase in the other (SAME DIRECTION).
0 <= r <= 1
Negative Correlation
An increase in one variable relates to a decrease in the other (OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS).
-1 <= r <= 0
Zero Correlation
No relationship and no correlation between two variables.
r = 0
What are the advantages of correlational research?
-They show the strength of present relationships
-They can be used to make predictions about variables
-Identifies “real world” associations
What are the disadvantages of correlational research?
-Cannot conclude a cause-effect relationship exists
-Relationships may be due to a third unmeasured variable
Independent Variable (IV)
The variable that is manipulated in an experiment
Dependent Variable (DV)
The variable that is measured in a study
Experimental Research
Involves manipulating variable(s) and measuring changes in other variable(s) while holding all other factors constant (control for other variables)
Between Groups (Between Subjects) Design
Each group in the experiment is composed of a different set of participants. Each group is exposed to different conditions.
Repeated Measures (Within Subjects) Design
Each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable.
Does the order participants undergo treatments matter?
Potentially. For instance, if participants are undergoing 2 treatments, have some participants undergo Treatment A then Treatment B while others undergo Treatment B then Treatment A. There may be some “carry over” effects from undergoing a specific treatment first.
Why are ethical standards enforced in research?
To protect the welfare of both human and animal subjects in psychological research.
Name 5 ethical standards that should be followed by all psychologists
Psychologists must:
1. Protect & promote the welfare of participants
2. Avoid doing harm to participants
3. Ensure the probable benefit is proportionally greater than the risk for all studies they undertake
4. Provide informed consent (full disclosure of the study)
5. Ensure privacy and confidentiality
