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Biology Flashcards > Ch 14 New > Flashcards

Ch 14 New Flashcards

1
Q

Mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of animals
depending mainly on their …………… and …………………………….

A

habitats and levels of organisation.

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2
Q

Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc., exchange O2
with CO2 by ………………………………………….

A

simple diffusion over their entire body surface.

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3
Q

Earthworms use their……

A

moist cuticle

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4
Q

Insects have a…………………………to transport atmospheric air within the body.

A

network of tubes (tracheal tubes)

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5
Q

Special vascularized structures called gills (branchial respiration) are used by most of the
………………………………….

A

aquatic arthropods and molluscs

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6
Q

Vascularized bags called lungs (pulmonary respiration) are used by the ……………. for the exchange of gases.

A

terrestrial forms

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7
Q

Among vertebrates, fishes use…………

whereas amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals respire through ……….

A

gills
lungs

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8
Q

Amphibians like frogs can respire through their………

A

moist skin (cutaneous respiration)

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9
Q

We have a pair of external nostrils opening out above the upper lips.
It leads to a nasal chamber through the nasal passage. The nasal
chamber opens into the pharynx, a portion of which is the common
passage for food and air. The pharynx opens through the larynx region
into the trachea.

A
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10
Q

Pharynx is ……

A

a portion of which is the common passage for food and air.

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11
Q

The pharynx opens through

A

the larynx region into the trachea.

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12
Q

Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in

A

sound production and hence called the sound box.

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13
Q

During swallowing ………….. can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called …………….to prevent the entry of food into the larynx.

A

glottis
epiglottis

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14
Q

Trachea is a straight tube extending up to the,……………… which divides at the level of ………….. into a right and left primary bronchi.

A

mid-thoracic cavity
5th thoracic vertebra

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15
Q

Trachea is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity, which divides at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into…………………………….

A

a right and left primary bronchi

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16
Q

Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the ……………

A

secondary and tertiary bronchi and bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles.

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17
Q

The tracheae, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi, and initial
bronchioles are supported by ……………….

A

incomplete cartilaginous rings.

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18
Q

Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very……………..

A

thin, irregular-walled and vascularised bag-like structures called alveoli.

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19
Q

Alveoli….

A

very thin, irregular-walled and vascularized bag-like structures (where exchange of gas occurs)

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20
Q

The branching network of …….., …………. and ……………comprise the lungs.

A

bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli

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21
Q

We have two lungs which are covered by a double layered…………,
with pleural fluid between them. It reduces friction on the lung-surface.

A

pleura

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22
Q

The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with the ……… whereas the inner pleural membrane is in contact with the………………….

A

thoracic lining
lung surface

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23
Q

The part starting with the external nostrils up to the terminal
bronchioles constitute the ………………. whereas the alveoli and their
ducts form the ………………………….of the respiratory system.

A

conducting part
respiratory or exchange part

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24
Q

The conducting part transports the……………., ………………., …………… and also……………….

A

atmospheric air to the alveoli,
clears it from foreign particles,
humidifies
brings the air to body temperature.

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25
Q

Exchange part is the site of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2
between blood and atmospheric air.

A
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26
Q

Exchange part is……………………………

A

the site of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air.

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27
Q

The lungs are situated in the ……………………….which is anatomically
an air-tight chamber.

A

thoracic chamber

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28
Q

The thoracic chamber is formed dorsally by the………………, ventrally by the……….. , laterally by the……….. and on the lower side by the ………………..

A

vertebral column (dorsally)
sternum (ventrally)
ribs (laterally)
dome-shaped diaphragm (lower side)

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29
Q

The anatomical setup of lungs in thorax is such that any change in the volume of the thoracic cavity will be reflected in the lung (pulmonary) cavity.

Such an arrangement is essential for breathing, as we cannot directly alter the
pulmonary volume.

A
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30
Q

Respiration involves the following steps:

A

1 Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air
is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is released out.
2 Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
3 Transport of gases by the blood.
4 Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
5 Utilization of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant
release of CO2

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31
Q

Breathing involves two stages :

A
  1. Inspiration during which atmospheric air is drawn in
  2. Expiration by which the alveolar air is released out.
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32
Q

The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a
pressure gradient between the ………. and ………………

A

lungs and the atmosphere

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33
Q

Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is ………….. than the atmospheric pressure, i.e., there is a ………………… pressure in
the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure.

A

less
negative

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34
Q

Expiration takes place when the intra-pulmonary pressure is …………. than the atmospheric pressure.

A

higher

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35
Q

The ………and a specialized set of muscles ……………………………… between the ribs, help in generation of such gradients.

A

diaphragm
external and internal intercostals

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36
Q

Inspiration is initiated by the …………………………… which increases
the volume of thoracic chamber in the antero-posterior axis. (attach figures)

A

contraction of diaphragm

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37
Q

The contraction of external inter-costal muscles lifts up the ribs and the sternum causing an increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis.

A

As (external inter-costal muscles) : contracts which lifts ribs and sternum that increases volume of thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis.

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38
Q

The overall increase in the thoracic volume causes a similar increase in pulmonary
volume. An increase in pulmonary volume decreases the intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure which forces the air from outside to move into the lungs, i.e., inspiration (Figure 14.2a).

A
39
Q

Relaxation of the diaphragm and the inter-costal muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to their normal positions and reduce the thoracic volume and thereby the pulmonary volume. This leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure causing the expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e., expiration (Figure 14.2b).

A
40
Q

We have the ability to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration with the help of
additional muscles in the…….

A

abdomen

41
Q

On an average, a healthy human breathes: …………….

A

12-16 times/minute

42
Q

The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by:

A

spirometer

43
Q

The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by
using a spirometer which helps in …………….

A

clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.

44
Q

Tidal Volume (TV):

A

Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration.

It is approx. 500 mL

A healthy man can inspire or expire approximately 6000 to 8000 mL of air per minute.

45
Q

Tidal Volume (TV):

A

Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration.

46
Q

How much is Tidal Volume (TV) in mL?

A

It is approx. 500 mL

47
Q

A healthy man can inspire or expire approximately

A

6000 to 8000 mL of air per minute.

48
Q

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):

A

Additional volume of air, a person can inspire by a forcible inspiration.

This averages 2500 mL to 3000 mL

49
Q

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):

A

Additional volume of air, a person can expire by a forcible expiration.

This averages 1000 mL to 1100 mL

50
Q

Residual Volume (RV):

A

Volume of air remaining in the lungs even after a forcible expiration.

This averages 1100 mL to 1200 mL.

By adding up a few respiratory volumes described above, one can
derive various pulmonary capacities, which can be used in clinical
diagnosis.

51
Q

Inspiratory Capacity (IC):

A

Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal expiration.

This includes tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume ( TV+IRV).

52
Q

Expiratory Capacity (EC):

A

Total volume of air a person can expire after a normal inspiration.

This includes tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV).

53
Q

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC):

A

Volume of air that will remain in the lungs after a normal expiration.

This includes ERV+RV.

54
Q

Vital Capacity (VC):

A

The maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a forced expiration.

This includes ERV, TV and IRV or the maximum volume of air a person can breathe out after a forced inspiration

55
Q

Total Lung Capacity (TLC):

A

Total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the end of a forced inspiration.

This includes RV, ERV, TV and IRV or vital capacity + residual volume.

56
Q

The primary sites of exchange of gases.

A

Alveoli

57
Q

Exchange of gases also occur between ……… and ……………

A

blood and tissues.

58
Q

Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases.

Exchange of gases also occur between blood and tissues.

O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion mainly based on ……………………….

A

pressure/concentration gradient

59
Q

Solubility of the gases as well as the thickness of the membranes
involved in diffusion are also some important factors that can affect the
rate of diffusion

A
60
Q

Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is
called ………………… and is represented as pO2 for oxygen and pCO2 for
carbon dioxide.

A

partial pressure

61
Q

table 14.1

A
62
Q

Table

A
63
Q

Table

A
64
Q

Table

A
65
Q

The diffusion membrane is made up of three major layers (Figure 14.4) namely, …..

The basement substance is composed of a …..

A
  1. the thin squamous epithelium of alveoli,
  2. the endothelium of alveolar capillaries and the
  3. basement substance

(thin basement membrane supporting the
1. squamous epithelium
2. basement membrane

surrounding the single layer endothelial cells of capillaries) in between them.

66
Q

However, its total thickness (talking about basement substance) is much less than a……..

Therefore, all the factors in our body are favorable for diffusion of O2 from alveoli to tissues and that of CO2 from tissues to alveoli.

A

millimeter

67
Q

Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2.

About 97 per cent of O2 is transported by……

The remaining 3 per cent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the….

A

RBCs in the blood.

plasma.

68
Q

Nearly 20-25 per cent of CO2 is transported by…….

70 per cent of it is carried as…..

About 7 per cent of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through…….

A

RBCs
bicarbonate
plasma.

69
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Red colored iron containing pigment present in the RBCs.

70
Q

O2 can bind with hemoglobin in a reversible manner to form …….

A

oxyhemoglobin.

71
Q

Each hemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of …….. molecules of O2.

A

four

72
Q

Binding of oxygen with hemoglobin is primarily related to …..

A

partial pressure of O2.

73
Q

……………. , ……………. and temperature are the other factors which can interfere with this binding. (Binding of oxygen with hemoglobin)

A
  1. Partial pressure of CO2
  2. Hydrogen ion concentration and
  3. Temperature
74
Q

A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of hemoglobin with O2 is plotted against the pO2.

This curve is called the……… (Figure 14.5) and is highly useful in studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration, etc., on binding of O2
with hemoglobin.

A

Oxygen dissociation curve

75
Q

In the alveoli, where there is

…….., ……….., ………., and ………….
and …………. , the factors are all favorable for the formation of
oxyhemoglobin,

A
  1. high pO2
  2. low pCO2
  3. lesser H+ concentration and
  4. lower temperature
76
Q

In the tissues, where

………., …………. , ………… and ………… exist, the conditions are favorable for dissociation
of oxygen from the oxyhemoglobin

A
  1. low pO2
  2. high pCO2
  3. higher H+ concentration
  4. higher temperature
77
Q

O2 gets bound to hemoglobin in the ………… and gets dissociated at the

A

lung surface
tissues.

78
Q

Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around ……. of O2 to the tissues under normal physiological conditions.

A

5 ml

79
Q

When pCO2 is …….. and pO2 is …….. as in the tissues, more binding of carbon dioxide occurs

A

high
low

80
Q

CO2 is carried by hemoglobin as ………… (about 20-25 per cent).

This binding is related to the partial pressure of CO2.

pO2 is a major factor which could affect this binding

A

carbamino-hemoglobin

81
Q

When the pCO2 is ……. and pO2 is ……. as in the alveoli, dissociation of CO2 from carbamino-hemoglobin takes place

CO2 which is bound to hemoglobin from the tissues is delivered at the alveoli

A

low
high

82
Q

RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, ………… and
minute quantities of the same is present in the plasma too.

This enzyme facilitates the following reaction in both directions.
(add the picture)

A

carbonic anhydrase

83
Q

At the tissue site where partial pressure of CO2 is ……. due to
catabolism,

CO2 diffuses into blood (RBCs and plasma) and forms HCO3
– and H+,.

A

high

84
Q

At the alveolar site where pCO2 is ………, the reaction proceeds in
the opposite direction leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O.

Thus, CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported to the
alveoli is released out as CO2 (Figure 14.4).

A

low

85
Q

Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately …….. of CO2 to the alveoli.

A

4 ml

86
Q

Human beings have a significant ability to maintain and moderate the
respiratory rhythm to suit the demands of the body tissues.

This is done by the neural system.

A specialized center present in the …….. region of the brain called ……….. is primarily responsible for this regulation.

A

medulla
respiratory rhythm center

87
Q

Another center present in the ……. region of the brain called ……….. can moderate the functions of the respiratory rhythm center.

Neural signal from this center can reduce the duration of …………… and thereby alter the respiratory rate.

A

pons
pneumatic center
inspiration

88
Q

A chemo sensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre which is highly sensitive to …….. and ………

Increase in these substances can activate this center, which in turn can signal the rhythm center to make necessary adjustments in the respiratory process by which these substances can be eliminated.

A

CO2
hydrogen ions.

89
Q

Receptors associated with …….. and ……… also can recognize
changes in CO2 and H+ concentration and send necessary signals to the
rhythm center for remedial actions

A

aortic arch
carotid artery

90
Q

The role of ……… in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.

A

oxygen

91
Q

Asthma

A

Difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation
of bronchi and bronchioles.

92
Q

Emphysema

A

Chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged
due to which respiratory surface is decreased.

One of the major causes of this is cigarette smoking.

93
Q

Occupational Respiratory Disorders

A

In certain industries, especially those involving grinding or stone-breaking, so much dust is produced that the defense mechanism of the body cannot fully cope with the
situation.

Long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis
(proliferation of fibrous tissues) and thus causing serious lung damage.

Workers in such industries should wear protective masks.

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