CBT and Learning Theory Flashcards
Generally defined, ________
refers to the permanent change
in potential performance or behavior as the result of experience, requiring some active participation on the part of the organism.
Learning
Who initially studied animal learning and
developed laws believed
to be applicable to human learning as well?
E.L. Thorndike
Thorndike’s idea of ________ referred to the observation that when a subject’s response was effective at achieving a reward, the response was repeated, while responses that were ineffective were eliminated.
Trial-and-error
learning (approximates Darwin’s notion of adaptive selection)
According to Thorndike, what are the 3 main conditions that maximize stimulus-response learning?
Law of Effect,
Law of Exercise,
and Law of Readiness
Thorndike’s Law of ________ states that response recurrence is governed by its consequence, usually in the form of reward or punishment- with increased satisfaction comes strengthening of the response, while discomfort leads to weakening of the response.
Effect (a direct precursor to Skinner’s principle of reinforcement)
What law, according to Thorndike, states that
stimulus-response associations are
strengthened through repetition?
Law of Exercise
Thorndike’s Law of ________ states that before a subject experiences satisfaction by performing an act, they must first be prepared to perform the act.
Readiness
Considered one of Thorndike’s minor laws, the ________ states that when an act has satisfying consequences, the pleasure becomes associated with other acts that occur at approximately the same time.
Law of Spread of Effect
According to Thorndike’s Theory of ________, new learning is facilitated by previous learning (“transfer of training”) 0only to the extent that the new learning contains elements identical to those in the previous, otherwise the amount of transfer is determined by the number of elements shared by both situations.
Identical elements
Generally considered the “father of modern behaviorism,” he believed psychologists should focus only on observable, measurable behaviors and argued that differences in experience account for differences in behavior.
John B. Watson (introduced the
term “behaviorism” in 1912)
Developed by ________, this paradigm contended that a response that is regularly elicited by a given stimulus would also be elicited by a substitute stimulus if the substitute were presented just prior to the original, and eventually the substitute will elicit the response on its own.
Pavlov; Classical Conditioning
In Pavlov’s dog/salivation experiment, the food was the ________ and the dog’s natural salivation was the ________; the bell was the ________ until it began to cause the dog to salivate, then it became the ________, while the salivation in response to the bell was the ________.
Unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response; neutral stimulus; conditioned stimulus; conditioned response
According to Pavlov, ________ conditioning refers to when the conditioned stimulus precedes and overlaps the unconditioned stimulus, whereas ________ conditioning involves the unconditioned stimulus coming before the conditioned stimulus.
Delayed; backward
Of the different types of conditioning, which produces the strongest and most rapidly acquired response, and which is the least effective?
Extinction
This refers to the sudden reappearance of a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus that had stopped producing a response, which indicates extinguished responses are more likely suppressed than forgotten.
Spontaneous recovery
This term refers to when a more salient conditioned stimulus is more strongly conditioned than a less salient conditioned stimulus, sometimes occurring when 2 simultaneous conditioned stimuli of different salience are paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Overshadowing
he ________ occurs when the extinction of a response to an overshadowing conditioned stimulus leads to an increased conditioned response to the less salient conditioned stimulus.
Cue deflation effect
In Watson’s “Little Albert” experiment, Albert’s eventual fear of all objects of a white and furry nature exemplifies what phenomenon?
Stimulus generalization (suggests responses/learning can generalize to similar to stimuli)
In what type of learning does one stimulus serve as a connecting link between 2 other stimuli that are never paired?
Mediated stimulus generalization (or mediated generalization)
This occurs when one stimulus is reinforced while others are not, leading to a conditioned response to only the reinforced stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination
According to Pavlov, what occurs when a discrimination task is too difficult and the stimuli cannot be differentiated readily enough, leading to noticeable changes in behavior?
Experimental neurosis
The process of ________ occurs when a
well-conditioned stimulus (bell) becomes an unconditioned stimulus and is paired
with a new stimulus (light), leading to the
new stimulus producing the conditioned
response (salivation), though slightly weaker- all without the original unconditioned stimulus (food).
Higher-order
conditioning (third-order conditioning never achieved)
In the process of ________, two conditioned stimuli (light and tone) are paired during preconditioning sessions; one conditioned stimulus (tone) is then paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food), which produces a conditioned response (salivation); when the other conditioned stimulus (light) is presented, the same conditioned response occurs, though weaker.
Sensory preconditioning
This occurs when one conditioned stimulus inhibits the learning of a second conditioned stimulus; when 2 conditioned stimuli are paired simultaneously with an unconditioned stimulus, only the first conditioned stimulus evokes the conditioned response.
Blocking
This occurs when 2 conditioned stimuli are simultaneously paired with an unconditioned stimulus and then only 1 conditioned stimulus continues to be paired with the unconditioned stimulus, leading to a weakening of conditioning to the other conditioned stimulus.
Backward blocking
This term refers to when a subject becomes conditioned more to the experimental/learning conditions themselves rather than the intended conditioned stimulus.
Pseudoconditioning
This term refers to the technique of pairing an undesirable behavior with an incompatible behavior so that the undesirable behavior is eliminated.
Counterconditioning
Developed by J. Wolpe, ________ encourages a person to imagine the feared object/situation while engaging in a response that is incompatible with the anxiety usually produced; he referred to the underlying process as ________.
Systematic desensitization; reciprocal inhibition
What counterconditioning technique encourages the repeated practice of appropriate and effective ways of dealing with real-life situations that are difficult for the client; the therapist provides feedback until the behavior is normal for the client.
Behavioral rehearsal
This counterconditioning technique is used to reduce performance anxiety evoked by sexual situations; it involves training a couple to relax and engage in sexual touching and exploration, without pressure to achieve arousal, erection, or orgasm.
Sensate focus
What technique based on classical extinction involves exposing the client to the anxiety-inducing stimulus, without pairing the feared stimulus with an incompatible response, while preventing them from engaging in their typical avoidance response?
Flooding (can
be imaginal or in-vivo)
A therapist treating a client
with a fear of heights used
the flooding technique, which actually led to increased fear of heights by the client. What is this an example of?
The incubation effect (or paradoxical enhancement effect)
To avoid the incubation effect,
treatment might include ________, which involves progressively introducing the client to certain aspects of the feared stimulus until the anxiety response has diminished.
Graded exposure (or graduated extinction)
Research by Foa and Kozak indicates that ________ flooding is more effective than ________ flooding.
In-vivo; imaginal
According to Stein and Marks, ________ exposure to an anxiety-evoking stimulus is more effective than ________ exposure.
Prolonged; brief
What are the disorders that flooding and graded exposure have been shown to be particularly effective at treating?
Agoraphobia and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Research suggests that the underlying principle
of systematic desensitization is likely
________, rather than counterconditioning.
Exposure to the
feared stimulus
without adverse consequences
What technique involves deliberate exposure to the physical sensations associated with panic attacks, such as hyperventilation, shaking head, racing heart, and body tension, to reduce the anxiety usually experienced when these sensations occur?
Interoceptive exposure
Similar to imaginal flooding, ________ imaginal exposure to a feared stimulus; however, it differs from flooding in that it incorporates psychodynamic themes thought to underlie the fear into the imagery.
Implosive therapy (implosion)
What technique pairs a noxious
stimulus with a behavior targeted for elimination, or a stimulus associated with that behavior, until the avoidance response elicited by the noxious stimulus is elicited by the targeted behavior?
Aversive conditioning
In aversive conditioning, the noxious stimulus is
the ________ and the
target stimulus or
behavior is the ________.
Unconditioned
stimulus;
conditioned stimulus
This aversive conditioning technique uses counterconditioning in imagination, as opposed to in-vivo, to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviors; a person imagines they are engaging in the undesirable behavior then imagines an aversive consequence.
Covert sensitization, which is more effective at treating paraphilias than obesity and addictions
According to B.F. Skinner, the term ________ refers to a response that
is voluntarily emitted and learned as
the result of environmental consequences that follow it, as opposed to respondent behaviors that are automatically elicited by stimuli.
Operant
From the Operant Conditioning perspective,
events that increase a behavior are called ________, while events that decrease a behavior are called ________.
Reinforcers; punishers
What is the general difference between the terms “positive” and “negative” in regards to reinforcement/punishment?
Positive means a
stimulus is applied,
while negative
means a stimulus is removed
According to Operant
Conditioning, a teenager
who receives an allowance only after completing all of his chores is an example of:
Positive Reinforcement (apply stimulus to increase behavior)
A mother nags her daughter for not completing her chores; once the daughter did her chores, her mother’s nagging ceased. What Operant Conditioning principle does this exemplify?
Negative Reinforcement (remove stimulus to increase behavior)
Based on Operant Conditioning, a shock-collar on a dog is an example of what?
Positive Punishment (apply stimulus to decrease behavior)
A child who receives a “time-out” for performing
an unacceptable
behavior exemplifies what Operant Conditioning principle?
Negative Punishment
(remove stimulus
to decrease behavior)
What term refers to the withdrawal of reinforcement from a previously reinforced behavior so that the behavior is decreased or eliminated?
Operant extinction
This behavioral understanding of depression suggests when once successful behaviors fail to elicit expected reinforcers, or if reinforcement becomes so unpredictable the subject is unable to tell what response works, the organism stops responding even if conditions change and the behavior could be successful again.
Learned helplessness
The reformulated learned
helplessness model posits that depressed people
tend to attribute bad things
that happen to them to
________, ________, and ________ factors.
Internal; global; stable (“I have and will always fail at everything I do”)
This model states that depression is associated with a low rate of response-contingent positive reinforcement, suggesting that people with depression have deficits in skills that produce positive reinforcement or minimize unpleasant outcomes.
Lewinsohn’s
Behavioral Model
When removal of a
reinforcer does not immediately decrease behavior, but rather temporarily increases the behavior, what has occurred?
Response burst
This occurs when 1 of 2 reinforced behaviors is extinguished, leading to an increase in frequency of the behavior that continues to be reinforced.
Behavioral contrast
What term refers to, after a
behavior has been extinguished, an organism’s increased responsiveness in the absence of any reinforcement trials?
Spontaneous recovery
A ________ reinforcer is inherently valuable and does not acquire its reinforcing value through prior experience (food, water, sex), whereas a ________ reinforcer acquires its value only through repeated pairings with the former (light paired with food eventually becomes a reinforcer).
Primary; secondary
Money is one example of a ________, which refers to when secondary reinforcers acquire a power unrelated to any individual primary reinforcer as a result of being paired with many types of primary reinforcers.
Generalized conditioned reinforcers
What schedule of reinforcement provides reinforcement for every response and leads to fast learning, fast satiation, and fast extinction?
Continuous schedule of reinforcement
The process of switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule of reinforcement is known as what?
Thinning
What are the 4
intermittent schedules of reinforcement?
Fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio, and variable-interval
A ________ schedule
provides reinforcement
after a set number of responses (e.g., rat receives food pellet after every 5 bar presses).
Fixed-ration (FR)
What schedule provides reinforcement after a set
period of time, regardless
of the number of responses made (e.g., worker receives a paycheck every 2 weeks)?
Fixed-interval (FI)
On a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ schedule, the subject is reinforced after a variable number of responses, though the exact number varies from reinforcer to reinforcer (e.g., gambling).
Variable-ratio (VR)
What schedule provides reinforcement for a behavior after an unpredictable amount of time (e.g., pop quizzes to increase studying)?
Variable-interval (VI)
Associated with fixed-interval schedules, this occurs when responding is very slow or nonexistent immediately following a reinforcement, then progressively increases and is finally rapid just before another reinforcement is due (e.g., child’s good behavior just before their birthday).
Scallop effect
A ________ schedule of reinforcement generates the most
constant response rate and
behaviors most resistant to extinction, while ________ schedules produce the lowest response rates and behaviors with the lowest resistance to extinction.
Variable-ratio; fixed-interval
What posits that when subjects
are provided 2 or more simultaneously available opportunities for reinforcement, their rate of responding will be proportional to the relative rate of reinforcement?
The Matching Law
Negative reinforcement is associated with an increase is what 2 types of behavior?
Escape and avoidance
This type of conditioning requires some action that allows the organism to get away from an aversive stimulus (e.g., torture stops after victim gives information).
Escape conditioning
In ________ conditioning, organisms learn through classical conditioning that certain events lead to aversive experiences, and are negatively reinforced for performing a behavior that stops the aversive experience from occurring. These types of behaviors are very resistant to extinction.
Avoidance (Mowrer’s 2-factor theory: factor 1 = classical conditioning, factor 2 = operant conditioning)
The process of an organism behaving one way in the presence of a specific stimulus but not another is know as ________, while responding to a stimulus that is similar but different than the original stimulus is referred to as ________
Stimulus discrimination; stimulus generalization
When a behavior is reinforced only in the presence of a certain stimulus, thus leading to the behavior occurring only when that stimulus is present, the stimulus is referred to as a ________, which is an environmental cue that a particular behavior will be reinforced.
Discriminative stimulus
A stimulus that serves as an environmental cue
that a certain behavior will not be reinforced is called what?
S-delta stimulus
Skinner believed ________, the connecting of a series of simple and related behaviors, is the mechanism responsible for the acquisition of complex behaviors; in this process, each response in the series acts as both a secondary reinforcer for the preceding response and a discriminative stimulus for the next response.
Chaining
In ________, training begins by teaching the last behavior in a sequence and works backward form there.
Backward chaining
What term refers to when reinforcement that increases the occurrence of one response also increases the occurrence of similar responses?
Response generalization
In this procedure, a subject is reinforced for
responding in ways that gradually approach the behavior that is desired?
Shaping (aka method of successive approximations)
Superstitious behavior, such as praying to heal the sick, is produced by ________ reinforcement, which occurs when response and reinforcement are coincidentally paired together.
Adventitious
According to research, when is positive reinforcement most successful?
When reinforcement occurs only after target behavior has been performed
True or False: Reinforcement is more
effective the longer the
interval between the
behavior and the reinforcement?
False- shorter intervals lead to
more effective reinforcement
What term is used to describe the loss of value of a specific reinforcer, for example, if a dog were to lose interest in receiving a certain type of treat used as reinforcement?
Satiation
Punishment works best when
it is ________ and ________.
Extreme; continual
This term refers to the decrease in responsiveness to a constant stimulus, thereby requiring a larger stimulus in order to achieve the previous level of responsiveness; it occurs when punishment is progressively increased rather than applied at maximum intensity from the outset.
Habituation
When a subject stops receiving punishment for a particular behavior, what typically occurs?
The behavior reaches a higher level than baseline initially, then returns to baseline (punishment may suppress behavior, but not eliminate it)
What “theory” involves reinforcing a low-probability behavior with a high-probability behavior (e.g., child is allowed to play video game in exchange for completing homework)?
Premack Principle (aka probability-differential theory)
Considered a form of
extinction and punishment,
________ is used to remove a person from an
environment in which reinforcers for a target behavior are available.
Time-Out
This extinction technique involves both correction of the negative behavior as well as repeated and exaggerated practice of an alternative appropriate behavior.
Overcorrection
What form of negative punishment, considered to be most effective form of punishment, involves removal of a pre-specified reward each time a targeted behavior is performed (e.g., teen’s driving privileges removed after coming home after curfew; traffic tickets)?
Response cost
(most effective
form of punishment)
Involving operant extinction and positive reinforcement, ________ involves reinforcing all other behaviors except the one that is targeted for elimination (e.g., Autistic child is reinforced for every 1 minute period he does not engage in self-injurious behavior).
Differential reinforcement for other behaviors (DRO)
What provides a structured
environment in which a person is reinforced for targeted behavior with an agreed upon reinforcer and undesirable behaviors are punished via response cost (e.g., a reward must be returned)?
Token Economy
True or False: Behaviors established within a token economy usually generalize well to other environments?
False- behaviors learned in a token economy do not generalize to other environments
Wolfgang Kohler developed ________ learning theory, involving the “a-ha experience, which could not be explained by operant conditioning; what he termed ________ he described as the result of a sudden internal cognitive restructuring of the environment.
Gestalt; insight learning
Tolman contended, in his Cognitive Learning Theory, that learning involves the acquisition of what?
Cognitive map (aka cognitive structure)
Learning that occurs without reinforcement and
does not immediately manifest itself in
performance is referred to by Tolman as what?
Latent learning
According to ________, the influence of stimuli and reinforcement on behavior is largely determined by cognitive processes, which govern what environmental influences are attended to and how they are perceived and interpreted.
Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura)
A child who learns to cook toast by watching her father make toast every morning, receiving no external reinforcement for the behavior, exemplifies what type of learning?
Observational
A feeling of ________ often occurs when a
behavior is successfully
performed, thereby serving as a reinforcer for itself.
Self-efficacy
What theory states that the probability of a behavior occurring depends on the strength of the learning habit and the level of drive, where the desire to reduce the drive motivates learning?
Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull
According to Miller and Dollard,
certain neurotic and psychotic
disorder are ________, reasoning that psychopathic symptoms allow escape from the original fear and thus serve to reinforce the symptom behavior.
Learned coping responses
Referred to as gradients, Miller and Dollard contend that drives can be divided into what 2 categories?
Approach and avoidance
Regarding biological factors in learning, ________ refers to the rapid acquisition of species identification and affection for the first moving object seen during an early “sensitive period” of development.
Imprinting
This law states: 1. Learning
and performance of any task occur at an optimal level of arousal and 2. The relationship between arousal and performance are an inverted U shape, regardless of task difficulty.
Yerkes-Dodson
The process of behavioral
assessment, from a pure
behavioral orientation, is
referred to as the ________ model and entails what 3 steps?
ABC; antecedents, behaviors, and consequences
The 3 steps of a “functional analysis include ________, which involves sampling the typical situations in which a behavior is likely to occur; ________, which involves listing responses the person typically emits in these situations; and ________, in which the adaptiveness or maladaptiveness of typical responses are evaluated.
Situational analysis; response
enumeration
phase; response evaluation
According to Ebbinghaus, what is the amount of time it takes to learn a list a second time?
Method of
relearning (aka savings method)
What are the 3 levels of memory, according to the multi-store model of memory?
Sensory memory,
short-term/primary memory, and
long-term/secondary memory
This level of memory
provides brief storage of
information after the stimuli have been removed; the information stays available for no more than 2-3 seconds.
Sensory
George Miller found this “magical number” as the
amount of information
that can be retained in
________ with rehearsal.
7 plus or minus
2; short-term memory
What involves grouping
large amounts of information into smaller related units, allowing for memory of a greater amount of information?
Chunking
The ability to hold several facts or thoughts in memory temporarily while solving a problem or performing a task refers to ________.
Working memory
This term refers to the
process of rapid verbal
repetition of the to-be-remembered information to facilitate maintaining it in working memory.
Articulatory loop
One way it is believed that information gets into long-term memory is by way of ________, or thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to information already in memory.
Elaborative rehearsal
True or False: Information that has been stored in long-term memory remains there permanently?
True- unless the brain in compromised due to a medical condition or substance use
According to Tulving, ________ memory is obtained through observation/practice
and contains information about how to do
things, ________ memory includes knowledge of language, common sense,
and rules of logic and inference, and
________ contains information about personally experienced events.
Procedural; semantic; episodic (autobiographical)
________ memory is the conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information (e.g., remembering appointments), while ________ memory refers to when previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without conscious awareness (e.g., conditioned responses).
Explicit
(declarative); implicit
When a person is asked to remember a list of unrelated words, research has shown they tend to recall words from the beginning (primacy) and the end (recency) of the list best. What is this referred to as?
Serial position effect
This term refers to vivid
memories created in great detail during personally significant and emotionally charged events.
Flashbulb memory
True or False: Flashbulb memories
tend to maintain
their accuracy over time?
False- research indicates they do fade over time
People with ________ amnesia
have normal recall of previously learned information but are unable to retain newly learned information, while those with ________ amnesia are able to retain and recall new information but unable to recall previously learned information.
Anterograde; retrograde
What mnemonic involves first
associating items to be remembered with visual images, then mentally placing the images somewhere in a familiar room, and finally mentally walking through the room to recall the items?
Method of Loci
The capacity to maintain
a mental snapshot of an
object even after it is removed is referred to as what?
Eidetic imagery
aka photographic memory
The ________ states that a person is better able to
recall information when the
relationship between
encoding, storage, and retrieval is closer.
Encoding specificity hypothesis (aka state-dependent memory)
________ dependence refers to the fact that information recall is better when the learning and retrieval environments are the same, while ________ dependence refers to the fact that recall of information is better when one’s emotions during learning and retrieval are similar.
Context; state
When a new experience interferes with recall of an earlier memory, it is referred to as ________ interference, while ________ interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with more recent learning.
Retroactive; proactive
This terms refers to the
inability to recall information due to its emotional significance, rather than true loss of the information.
Repression
This has been found to occur when actual memories are combined with
the content of suggestions from
other sources of information such as when conversing with others who experienced the same event or accessing new information from the media.
Misinformation effect (false memories)
________ attention involves focusing on one event while filtering out irrelevant events, ________ attention involves focusing cognitive activity on one event for an extended period of time, and ________ attention refers to focusing on 2 or more events simultaneously.
Selective;
sustained; divided
What theory contends that focused visual attention is what allows us to perceive an object as an entire entity rather than as a meaningless cluster of features?
Feature Integration Theory
The capacity to chunk or move information between working memory and long-term memory rapidly and efficiently, requiring very little attention, is referred to as what?
Automaticity
Often defined as “knowing about knowing,” ________ refers to one’s awareness of their own cognitive state and processes and involves things such as evaluating one’s own cognitive skills, using strategies to increase learning efficiency, and determining how much knowledge one has or needs.
Metacognition
