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Catastrophic Events Flashcards

1
Q

Scientific method:

A

Observation, hypothesis, testing, theory, testing, law

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2
Q

Father of stratigraphy

A

Nicholas Steno

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3
Q

Uniformitarianism concept:

A

Understanding history of earth’s surface based on current processes (weathering, sediment transport by water/wind, production of layered sediments in lakes)

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4
Q

Recognized marine origins of fossils:

A

Nicholas Steno

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5
Q

Assumed all uneven features of Earth were caused by Noah’s flood:

A

Thomas Burnet

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6
Q

Determined that the beginning of earth was Oct 22 4004BC based on Biblical research:

A

Archbishop Ussher

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7
Q

Studied the sedimentary rocks forming the laters of the Paris Basin and interpreted findings as evidence of reported states of sudden flooding:

A

Baron Georges Curvier

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8
Q

Calculated earth’s history to be ~6000 years old based on work with sedimentary rocks:

A

Baron Georges Curvier

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9
Q

Catastrophists believe:

mountains, valleys, fossils, species

A

Earth began as molten ball; as it cooled it went through a series of intermittent global convulsions that threw rocks into mountain formations
Valleys were erosion from Noah’s flood
Fossils represented previous life forms that were killed off during catastrophic events
All species are independent.

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10
Q

The first person to RECOGNIZE the concept of uniformitarianism (gradualism):

A

Leonardo da Vinci

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11
Q

Father of modern geology:

A

James Hutton

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12
Q

First person to formulate and name the concept of gradualism:

A

James Hutton

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13
Q

Who was a deist?

A

James Hutton

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14
Q

What does it mean to be a deist?

A

Believe in a deity but not in divine intervention or the conformity of natural processes to scriptures

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15
Q

Why did James Hutton think that the earth was older than the Bible said?

A

Knew that it took a very long time for weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition elsewhere and solidification into rock

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16
Q

Who created the law of uniformitarianism:

A

Charles Lyell

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17
Q

Who championed Hutton’s views of uniformitarianism:

A

Charles Lyell

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18
Q

Law of Uniformitariansm:

A

the present is the key to the past

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19
Q

Age of earth:

A

4.54 billion years old

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20
Q

Who created the principle of superposition:

A

Nicholas Steno

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21
Q

Principle of superposition:

A

in any vertical sequence the oldest layers will occur the base and the youngest layers will be at the top

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22
Q

Who created the principle of original horizontality:

A

Nicholas Steno

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23
Q

Principle of original horizontality:

A

sedimentary strata would have lain flat when they were first deposited

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24
Q

Who created the principle of original lateral continuity:

A

Nicholas Steno

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25
Q

Principle of lateral continuity:

A

the flat lying sedimentary strata would have initially been extended in all directions

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26
Q

Who created the principle of cross cutting relationship:

A

James Hutton

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27
Q

Principle of cross cutting relationship:

A

the fault is younger than the rock it cuts

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28
Q

Angular unconformity:

A

the contact that serapes a younger, gently dipping rock from older underlying rocks that are tilted or deformed rock

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29
Q

Disconformity:

A

erosional contacts that are parallel to the bedding planes of the upper and lower rocks

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30
Q

Non-conformity:

A

the contact that serapes a younger sedimentary unit from an igneous intrusive rock or metamorphic rock

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31
Q

Who created the principle of faunal succession?

A

William Smith

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32
Q

Why did William Smith create the principle of faunal succession:

A

noticed that the individual layers in sedimentary strata he was working with each contained characteristic fossils that were distinct to those in the layers above and below

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33
Q

Principle of faunal succession:

A

the same layer in different parts of the country; based upon fossils - able to build composite stratigraphic column

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34
Q

Present era:

A

Cenozoic era

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35
Q

What era did dinosaurs go extinct?

A

Cenozoic era

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36
Q

What era did Pangaea break up?

A

Mesozoic

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37
Q

Who discovered radioactivity?

A

Henri Bequerel

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38
Q

Isotope:

A

atoms of the same element that differ in number of neutrons

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39
Q

What are the 3 ways isotopes decay?

A

proton will turn into a neutron (vice versa)
2 neutrons + 2 protons (=alpha particle) ejected from nucleus
mission of stray neutron hits a large nucleus and causes instability breaking in two

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40
Q

How many half lives occur before the amount of parent remaining in rock is too small to measure?

A

10

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41
Q

When to use carbon-14 dating?

A

In last 50 000 years

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42
Q

Layers of earth:

A

inner core, outer core, mesosphere, asthenosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere

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43
Q

Composition and % of inner core:

A

solid, hot, nearly pure metal; 20%

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44
Q

Composition and % of outer core:

A

liquid, hot, nearly pure metal; 35%

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45
Q

Composition and % of mesosphere:

A

stiff plastic, very dense rock behaving like solid; 40%

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46
Q

Composition and % of asthenosphere:

A

soft plastic, liquid in some spots; 4%

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47
Q

Composition and % of lithosphere:

A

soild, cold, brittle; 1%

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48
Q

Radius of earth:

A

6371 km

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49
Q

What layer of earth was once known as ‘mantle’?

A

mesophere and asthenosphere

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50
Q

What layer of earth was once known as ‘crust’?

A

lithosphere

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51
Q

Differentiation:

A

heavy material moving towards the planets core forming layers of earth.

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52
Q

Internal energy of earth comes from:

A

radioactivity

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53
Q

Who formulated the theory of continental drift:

A

Alfred Wagner

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54
Q

Who first noticed ‘spreading centers’?

A

Henry Hess

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55
Q

Paleomagnetism:

A

the study of earth’s magnetic field through the analysis of rock magnetism

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56
Q

Dynamo model:

A

electric currents are generated by enormous dynamos driven by circulating hot currents in the liquid metal outer core, and magnetic fields surround those electric currents
inner core is rotating at faster than the rest of the planet.

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57
Q

Magnetite crystals form in what rock?

A

Basalt

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58
Q

Where will magnetite crystals point exactly vertical?

A

North/south poles

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59
Q

Where will magnetite crystals point exactly horizontal?

A

Equator

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60
Q

What did Vine and Matthews discover?

A

Magnetite crustals in the basalt were oriented according to the magnetic north/south; found a pattern of alternating strips of orientation was age related

61
Q

Volcanic ridges mark…

A

spreading centres; subduction of 2 continents

62
Q

Focus:

A

point where failure starts

63
Q

Epicenter:

A

point on surface exactly vertically above focus

64
Q

Characteristics of P wave:

A

fast, compressional wave; dependent on density; travel through anything

65
Q

Characteristics of S wave:

A

slower; travel through solids

66
Q

Body waves =

A

P wave + S wave

67
Q

Surface wave characteristics:

A

destructive; slow

68
Q

Types of surface waves:

A

love wave, rayleigh waves

69
Q

Characteristics of love wave:

A

move forward across surface - side to side oscillation

70
Q

Characteristics of rayleigh wave:

A

move forward across surface - up and down backward rotation oscillation

71
Q

Who first developed the seismograph?

A

Hugo Benioff

72
Q

What did Hugo Benioff find with his seismograph on the ocean floor?

A

Earthquakes along trench surface sloping downward and away from ocean side ward the continental plate side

73
Q

Who perfected the seismograph?

A

Charles Richter

74
Q

Divergent boundaries mark…

A

Spreading centres

75
Q

Spreading centres mark…

A

Divergent boundaries

76
Q

Convergent boundaries mark…

A

Subduction zones

77
Q

Subduction zones mark…

A

Convergent boundaries

78
Q

Transform boundaries mark…

A

Strike slip faults

79
Q

Strike slip faults mark…

A

transform boundaries

80
Q

Proof of Hawaii chain formation theory:

A

Volcanic islands not of Hawaii are dead
Increased volcanic activity south of Hawaii
New sea mount forming on south coast
Hot spot entered beneath the big island (new new volcanic mound)

81
Q

Where do mantle plumes originate:

A

core-mantle boundary

82
Q

What earthquake scale was used before Richter scale?

A

Modified mercalli intensity scale

83
Q

M1 =

A

Richter magnitude scale

84
Q

The “standard” earthquake:

A

One hundred km from the source; 1 mm amplitude; magnitude 3

85
Q

The 10x factor for earthquake magnitudes holds true until…

A

7

86
Q

MW =

A

Moment Magnitude Scale

87
Q

Total energy is calculated from _, _, _ to form MW reading:

A

Total measured area
Amount of offset
Strength of rocks

88
Q

Paleoseismology:

A

Study of ancient earthquakes by reading the rock record

89
Q

Liquefaction:

A

Intense shaking can cause water-saturated sediment to change rapidly form a solid to liquid

90
Q

Earthquake characteristics at divergent boundaries:

A

Numerous, low magnitude; normal fault

91
Q

Earthquake characteristics at convergent boundaries:

A

Largest earthquakes

92
Q

Earthquake characteristics at transform boundaries:

A

Shallow; only bad on continents

93
Q

Needed for earthquake prediction:

A

Location
Time
Magnitude

94
Q

Foreshocks:

A

microfractures in weaker rocks

95
Q

Seismic gap:

A

no motion on a section of the fault although motion does occur frequently on other sections of the fault boundary

96
Q

Indications of fracturing:

A

Drop in P wave speed and electrical conductance; radon gas; drop in water levels

97
Q

Earthquake capitol of the world:

A

Parkfield, California, US

98
Q

Most devastating tsunami?

A

Sundra megathrust earthquake (Indian ocean)

99
Q

Shoaling effect:

A

tsunami get higher as the water is shallower

100
Q

Tide retreats before tsunami:

A

draw down

101
Q

PTWC monitors earthquakes above…

A

6.5

102
Q

Transform earthquakes occur in:

A

San Francisco

103
Q

Biggest/worst earthquake occured in:

A

New Madrid, Missori; intraplate fault

104
Q

Concept of transform faults by:

A

Turzo Wilson

105
Q

On land, transform faults appear to connect…

A

convergent and/or divergent plate boundaries

106
Q

Plutonic rocks:

A

Magma solidified below surface

107
Q

Igneous rock:

A

All types of rock produced from magma (volcanic or plutonic)

108
Q

The amount of exsolved water increases when..

A

Temperature decreases

109
Q

Types of basalt:

A

aa basalt

pahoehoe basalt

110
Q

Characteristics of aa basalt:

A

rubbly looking rock; les water

111
Q

Characteristics of pahoehoe basalt:

A

smooth-surfaced, ropey looking rock; more water

112
Q

Three types of magma (increasing order of modification):

A

Basalt, andesite, rhyolite

113
Q

As magma modification increases, SIO2 content…

A

Increases

114
Q

As magma modification increases, temperature…

A

decreases

115
Q

As magma modification increases, viscosity…

A

Increases

116
Q

As magma modification increases, dissolved water content…

A

Increases

117
Q

As magma modification increases, explosiveness…

A

Increases

118
Q

Basalt is more _ rich:

A

Ca

119
Q

Andesite is more _ rich:

A

Na, Si, volatile

120
Q

Rhyolite is more _ rich:

A

K, Si, volatile

121
Q

Asthenosphere rock will melt by:

A

Increasing temperature, decreasing pressure

122
Q

Magma produced at ocean spreading centres =

A

MORB: mid ocean ridge basalt

123
Q

Type of rock that melts (asthosphere) in ocean spreading centres =

A

Peridotite

124
Q

Assimilation:

A

Hot magma works its way into fractures of surrounding rock; loosens blocks of rock with gradually fall into the magma which melts

125
Q

Fractional crystallization:

A

At cooler temperatures crystals begin to form in the melt; if they are crystals of minerals that are relatively heavier than the melt they will fall through the magma towards the base and may form a rock

126
Q

Magma mixing:

A

two magma chambers join together

127
Q

Nuee ardent:

A

pyroclastic flow that is red hot

128
Q

3 main volatiles in magma:

A

water, CO2, SO2

129
Q

Pyroclastic products:

A

fragmented rock, magma, ash

130
Q

Lahar:

A

mudflow of pyroclastic material + water + anything else; turns to solid

131
Q

Periods between volcanic eruptions:

A

repose

132
Q

Short period earthquakes in volcanoes indicate that…

A

Magma chamber is fracturing

133
Q

Long period earthquakes in volcanoes indicate that…

A

Magma has left the chamber and is ring toward the surface (imminent eruption)

134
Q

Good eruption precursors:

A

tilt meters
CO2:SO2 ratio (high)
high frequency of earthquakes

135
Q

Plinian eruptions:

A

vertical eruptions

136
Q

Pelean eruptions:

A

horizontal eruptions

137
Q

The eruption is only exposive if (3):

A 
High visocity (high Si)
High content of exsolved volatiles
Cap of volcano suddenly ruptures
138
Q

Volcano of ‘atlantis’:

A

Akrotiri of Santorini

139
Q

Mount St Helens and Mt. Versuvius lie on a…

A

Subduction zone

140
Q

History of Hawaii volcanoes:

A

~75 mya first island gradually build up from sea floor
Pacific plate drifed over mantle plume forming string of islands
~43 mya direction of shift changed

141
Q

Magma erupting in Hawaii is called

A

alkali basalt

142
Q

When mantle plumes/hotspots form under ocean plates they will…

A

Initiate spreading centre

Form Hawaii-like islands

143
Q

When mangle plumes/hotspots form under continents they will…

A

form giant resurgent calderas

144
Q

What is the cause of 2 species mass extinctions?

A

Flood basalts

145
Q

Flood basalts form on top of …

A

Large igneous provinces

146
Q

The only continental basalt plateaus that do not appear to be related to continental splitting are the…

A

Columbia river basalt and the siberian basalt

147
Q

Techniques for radioactive dating rocks:

A

K Ar

40Ar - 39 Ar (more reliable)

148
Q

Event for causing species extinction 251mya:

A

Siberian traps

149
Q

Event for causing species extinction 65 mya:

A

Deccan basalts

Western (14 decks)

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