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anatomy and physiology ii > BLOOD LECTURE > Flashcards

BLOOD LECTURE Flashcards

Understanding the functions and properties of blood.

1
Q

General Functions of Blood

A

transportation, protection, and regulation

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2
Q

How much blood do men have in comparison to women? pH balance?

A

women 4-5L; men 5-6L and both have a pH of 7.35-7.45

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3
Q

What are the components of whole blood?

A

plasma, buffy coat (leukocytes and platelets), erythrocytes (red blood cells)

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4
Q

What percentage of whole blood do erythrocytes make up?

A

45% of whole blood

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5
Q

What percentage of whole blood does plasma make up?

A

55% of whole blood

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6
Q

What percentage of whole blood do leukocytes (white blood cells) make up?

A

<1% of whole blood

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7
Q

What are the different types of leukocytes?

A

granulocytes and agranulocytes

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8
Q

What are the different types of granulocytes?

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

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9
Q

What are the different types of agranulocytes?

A

lymphocytes and monocytes

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10
Q

What is viscosity?

A

the thickness of a fluid

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11
Q

What is the result of high blood viscosity on the body?

A

If the blood became overly viscous it would become more difficult for the heart to pump and result in the heart working harder to transport oxygen; strains heart causing low heart rate

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12
Q

What is the result of low blood viscosity on the body?

A

If the blood had a low viscosity level or was too thin the heart rate would accelerate because fluids would be moving too quickly throughout the body; blood pressure drops

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13
Q

What is osmolarity?

A

the number of dissolved particles in a fluid

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14
Q

What is blood’s osmolarity?

A

blood = 280-296mOsm/L mostly because of the nutrients and protein it contains

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15
Q

What does whole blood transport?

A

oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, hormones, and heat

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16
Q

What does whole blood protect with/ against?

A

whole blood uses leukocytes (white blood cells) to fight against antibodies, clotting, and inflammation

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17
Q

What does whole blood regulate?

A

water balance and stabilizes pH balance

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18
Q

Kwashiorkor

A

a lack of protein in the body that causes fluid to accumulate in the abdomen

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19
Q

What are the components of plasma?

A

water, proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and gases

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20
Q

Types of Proteins in Plasma

A

albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen

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21
Q

What is the most abundant solute in plasma?

A

proteins; used for clotting, defense, and transport

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22
Q

What are albumins?

A

the smallest and most abundant plasma proteins which are also most responsible for blood osmolarity and transportation

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23
Q

Components of Plasma Nutrients

A

glucose, AA, fats, cholesterol, phospholipids, vitamins, and minerals; absorbed by the digestive tract

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24
Q

Components of Plasma Electrolytes

A

sodium accounts for more blood osmolarity than any other solute (90% of cations)

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25
Q

Components of Plasma Waste

A

toxic end products of catabolism; urea

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26
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

the production of all types of blood cells; red, white, and platelets

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27
Q

Where does hematopoiesis occur?

A

hematopoiesis primarily occurs in the red bone marrow of flat bones

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28
Q

Types of Hematopoiesis

A

erythropoiesis, leukopoiesis, and thrombopoiesis

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29
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes)

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30
Q

Leukopoiesis

A

the production of white blood cells (leukocytes)

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31
Q

Thrombopoiesis

A

the production of platelets

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32
Q

How many red blood cells per second does erythropoiesis produce?

A

produces approx. 3 million per second; destroys approx. 3 million per second to maintain homeostasis

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33
Q

What is the creation process for erythrocytes (red blood cells)?

A

hemocytoblast (stem cell) -> proerythroblast -> erythroblast -> normoblast -> reticulocyte -> erythrocyte

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34
Q

How long does it take for an erythrocyte to develop?

A

3-5 days involving the reduction in cell size, synthesis of hemoglobin, and loss of nucleus

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35
Q

What is the result of a low blood cell count?

A

a blood cell count results in hypoxemia (oxygen deficiency in blood) to kidneys

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36
Q

What is the kidneys response to a low blood count?

A

the kidneys release erythropoietin (EPO) to stimulate the bone marrow and increase the red blood count; takes 3-4 days

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37
Q

What is the main nutritional requirement for erythropoiesis?

A

iron; urination, defecation, and bleeding are the main causes of iron loss

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38
Q

What are natural stimulants of erythropoiesis?

A

being at high altitudes, an increase in exercise, or blood vessel hemorrhaging

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39
Q

How much iron do men need in comparison to women?

A

men 0.9mg/day; women 1.7mg/day; it’s suggested that the individual takes much more than is nutritionally recommended

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40
Q

Why should individuals consume so much iron?

A

because it is absorbed very slowly and sometimes not at all

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41
Q

How is iron converted within the body?

A

stomach acid coverts Fe+3 into Fe+2 and then it’s absorbed into the blood; it is then used to make hemoglobin (bone marrow) and myoglobin (muscle)

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42
Q

What are B12 and Folic Acid used for?

A

rapid cell division

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43
Q

What are Vitamin C and Copper used for?

A

they are cofactors for enzymes synthesizing in red blood cells

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44
Q

What are Leukocytes?

A

different variations of white blood cells

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45
Q

What is the process of leukocyte production?

A

mature leukocytes release CSF in response to infections that stimulate white blood cell (leukocyte) production

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46
Q

Where are leukocytes stored?

A

leukocytes are stored in red bone marrow (10-20 times as much as erythrocytes); bone marrow releases the granulocytes and monocytes when needed

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47
Q

Life Span of Granulocytes

A

they stay in the bloodstream for 8 hours until they return into the tissue; only live 5 days after the infection is gone

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48
Q

Life Span of Monocytes

A

they stay in the bloodstream after 20 hours until they transform into macrophages; may live on for years

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49
Q

Life Span of Lymphocytes

A

may last decades circulating between blood, tissue, and lymph nodes; provide long-term immunity

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50
Q

What is the process of platelet production (thrombopoiesis)?

A

hemocytoblast develops receptor for thrombopoietin from liver or kidney and becomes a megakaryoblast

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51
Q

Megakaryoblast

A

repeatedly replicates its DNA without dividing to form a giant cell called a megakaryocyte; in the bone marrow

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52
Q

What are the functions of a megakaryocyte

A

cytoplasm folds into itself and splits off cell fragments that enter the bloodstream as platelets

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53
Q

How long do platelets live?

A

10 days

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54
Q

Where are platelets stored?

A

they’re stored in the spleen and are released when needed

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55
Q

Form of Erythrocytes

A

disc-shaped red blood cells that transport gases

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56
Q

Function of Erythrocytes

A

transports gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide; also contain hemoglobin

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57
Q

Components of Erythrocytes

A

an increased surface/ volume ratio due to lack of organelles

increases the diffusion rate of substances in/ out of the cell

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58
Q

Carbonic Anhydrase (CAH)

A

an enzyme contained in RBC that produces carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water

59
Q

What percentage of an erythrocytes cytoplasm is hemoglobin?

A

33%; hemoglobin delivers the oxygen to the anatomical systems and transports carbon dioxide back to the lungs

60
Q

What is the significance of carbonic anhydrase?

A

it contributes to gas transportation and pH balance

61
Q

what makes up hemoglobin (Hb)?

A

4 protein chains called globins each containing an iron pigment which attaches to an oxygen molecule

62
Q

What is the carrying capacity of hemoglobin?

A

each hemoglobin molecule (protein chain) can carry 4 oxygen

63
Q

How many hemoglobin do each red blood cell (erythrocyte) contain?

A

around ~250 million hemoglobin molecules or ~1 billion oxygen molecules per red blood cell

64
Q

What is an indication of the amount of oxygen then blood can carry?

A

the red blood cell count and its hemoglobin concentration

65
Q

Hematocrit (Hct)

A

another term for “formed element”; the packed cell volume/ percentage of blood composed of cells

66
Q

The ratio between men and women’s packed cell volume (hematocrit)

A

Men: 42% - 52%
Women: 37% - 48%

67
Q

The average red blood cell (erythrocyte) count ratio between men and women

A

Men: 4.6 - 6.2 million/uL
Women: 4.2 - 5.4 million/uL

68
Q

What is the average hemoglobin (Hb) ratio between men and women

A

Men: 13 - 18 g/dL
Women: 12 - 16 g/dL

69
Q

Life Span of Erythrocytes

A

120 days

69
Q

Why are there differences in men and women’s erythrocyte and hemoglobin concentrations?

A

Men have androgens (hormones) that stimulate erythrocyte production more frequently than women; women also experience periodic blood loss through menstruation

70
Q

Why don’t red blood cells (erythrocytes) regenerate?

A

the cell membrane weakens overtime and without a nucleus or ribosomes, it can’t repair itself

71
Q

Where do red blood cells typically die?

A

the spleen or “erythrocyte graveyard” consists of narrow channels that test the strength of old erythrocyte membranes; if the membrane is too weak, they cell tears apart and dies

72
Q

What do macrophages of the spleen do with dead erythrocytes?

A
  • digest erythrocytes membranes
  • separate the heme from the globin
  • remove iron from the heme and convert the heme into biliverdin
  • converts biliverdin to bilirubin
  • bilirubin becomes a bile product of the liver and is excreted in feces
73
Q

Polycythemia

A

an excess of red blood cells

74
Q

What is polycythemia vera (primary)?

A

a condition due to a cancer of the erythropoietic cell line in the red bone marrow

75
Q

How high can the red blood cell count be in the case of polycythemia vera?

A

it can be as high as 11 million/uL; hematocrit level increases to 80%

76
Q

What is secondary polcythemia?

A

a condition caused by dehydration, emphysema, high altitudes, physical exertion; red blood cell count is only increased to 8 million/uL

77
Q

What are the dangers of polycythemia?

A

an increased level of red blood cells cause an increase in blood volume, pressure, and viscosity which all can lead to embolism, a stroke, or heart faliure

78
Q

What is an embolism?

A

a blockage of blood vessels by a blood clot

79
Q

What is cancer?

A

the abnormal production of a particular cell

80
Q

What are the causes of anemia?

A
  • poor synthesis of erythropoiesis and hemoglobin due to a poor diet (iron deficiency or lack of B12 and pernicious anemia)
  • excessive blood loss (an ulcer)
  • the destruction of blood cells (can be due to external or internal causes)
81
Q

What are the effects of anemia?

A

tissue hypoxia (makes you short of breath and lethargic), low blood osmolarity (tissue edema), low blood viscosity (heart races a blood pressure drops)

82
Q

What is sickle cell disease?

A

a hereditary hemoglobin defect of african americans

83
Q

What is the cause of sickle cell disease?

A

the recessive allele modifies hemoglobin structure; creates sickle celled hemoglobin (HbS)

84
Q

What sort of people experience sickle cell?

A

people homozygous for HbS exhibit the disease; if heterozygous for it - they have the sickle trait but hardly any symptoms

85
Q

What was the life expectancy of people with sickle cell disease in 1994?

A

they were expected to have a terrible horrible death before the age of 50; without treatment child wouldn’t live past 2 years

86
Q

What causes the “sickle” shape of sickled cells to occur?

A

hemoglobin sickle turns into a gel in low oxygen causing the elongation of the cell into a sickle shape

87
Q

What is the result of sickle shaped cells?

A

the cells become sticky and begin to block vessels and cause intense pain as wells as kidney and heart faliure, and strokes

88
Q

Where did sickle cell originate?

A

it originated in Africa where many people die of malaria; a parasite that feeds on the hemoglobin in a red blood cell

89
Q

Why is sickle cell originating in Africa significant?

A

sickled celled hemoglobin is indigestible to malaria parasites; making them resistant to malaria

90
Q

What are the different types of granulocytes ( a type of leukocyte)?

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

91
Q

What are the characteristics of granulocytes?

A

they contain cytoplasmic granules, are large, shorter lifespans than erythrocytes, have lobed nuclei, and are phagocytic

92
Q

What percentage of leukocytes do neutrophils make up?

A

50-70% and increase during bacterial infections; they are common because they kill bacteria on a daily basis

93
Q

What is a “respiratory burst”?

A

the generation of highly damaging free radicals that attack invading bacteria/ fungi after engulfed by the cell

94
Q

What do neutrophils do?

A

they phagocytize (kill and ingest) bacteria and release antimicrobial chemicals (e.g. peroxidases, hydrolytic enzymes, and defensins)

95
Q

What percentage of leukocytes do eosinophils make up?

A

1-4% and increase in parasitic infections or allergies

96
Q

What do eosinophils do?

A

they release enzymes to destroy parasites such as roundworms and flatworms that are too large to phagocytized

97
Q

How do worms (parasites) get into the body?

A

They are typically ingested from foods (like raw fish)

98
Q

What percentage of leukocytes do basophils make up?

A

0.5% and increase in chickenpox , diabetes, or allergies

99
Q

What do basophils do?

A

they secrete histamine (a vasodilator) and heparin (an anticoagulant); histamine also attracts other white blood cells to the infection site

100
Q

What are the different types of agranulocytes (a type of leukocyte)?

A

lymphocytes and monocytes

101
Q

What are the characteristics of agranulocytes?

A

they have no visible granules, have spherical or kidney-shaped nuclei

102
Q

Which type of agranulocyte has spherical nuclei?

A

lymphoctes

103
Q

Which type of agranulocyte has kidney-shaped nuclei?

A

monocytes

104
Q

What percentage of leukocytes do lymphocytes make up?

A

more than 25% and increase in diverse infections and immune responses

105
Q

What do lymphocytes do?

A

destroy cancer as well a foreign and virally infected cells;
present antigens to activate other immune cells;
secrete antibodies and provide immune memory;
include T and B cells

106
Q

What percentage of leukocytes do monocytes make up?

A

4.8% and increase in viral infections and inflammation

107
Q

Which type of white blood cell (leukocyte) is the largest?

A

monocytes are the largest leukocyte

108
Q

What do monocytes do?

A

they differentiate into macrophages and phagocytize pathogens and debris; they also present antigens to activate other immune cells

109
Q

Leukopenia

A

a low blood cell count caused by radiation, cancer drugs, poisons, and infectious disease that elevate the risk of infection

110
Q

Leukocytosis

A

a high white blood cell count caused by infection, allergy, and disease

111
Q

Leukemia

A

cancer of the hemopoietic tissue that causes uncontrolled leukocyte production (immature cells incapable or protecting the body)

112
Q

What are the terms (myeloid/ lymphocytic) leukemia named after?

A

it’s named after a type of cell involved (myeloid leukemia) involves myoblast cells; lymphocytic leukemia involves lymphocytes

113
Q

What is acute leukemia?

A

fast advancing cancer of the hemopoietic tissue that comes from stem cells and occurs mostly in kids

114
Q

What is chronic leukemia?

A

slowly advancing cancer of the hemopoietic tissue that comes from stem cells and ocurrs mostly in adults

115
Q

What are the results of leukemia?

A

all leukemias are fatal without therapy

116
Q

What are the effects of leukemia?

A

a normal leukocyte cell percentage is disrupted and the patient is subject to infection, anemia, and impaired clotting

117
Q

What are the treatments for leukemia?

A

chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone treatments, and bone marrow transplants

118
Q

What is the responsibility of platelets?

A

they control the bleeding

119
Q

Where do platelets originate from?

A

they are small fragments of megakaryocytes regulated by thrombopoietin

120
Q

What are the functions of platelets?

A

they secrete clotting factors for endothelial repair and vasoconstrictors in broken vessels;
form plugs in vessels;
dissolve old blood clots; phagocytize bacteria;
and attract leukocytes to the site of infection

121
Q

What is hemostasis (in terms of platelets)?

A

it’s a series of reactions that stop bleeding

122
Q

What is a vascular spasm?

A

it’s when blood vessels to injury by smooth muscle vasoconstriction which prevents blood loss

123
Q

What is platelet plug formation?

A

it’s when platelets stick to injured and exposed collagen fibers which form a plug closing the break in the vessel wall

124
Q

What do the platelets release during platelet plug formation?

A

the release chemicals like (adp, serotonin, thromboxane a2) that attracts more platelets to damaged areas and makes them sticky

125
Q

What is coagulation (blood clotting)?

A

it’s when fibrin threads form a mesh that traps erythrocytes and platelets to form a clot

126
Q

What are clotting factors?

A

they are plasma proteins that transform blood from a liquid to a gel at the injury site

127
Q

When does clot retraction occur?

A

it generally occurs within 30-60 minutes to stabilize the clot

128
Q

What is the first step of clot retraction?

A

attached platelets contract (actin/myosin) and pull the ruptured edges of vessels closer together

129
Q

What is the second step of clot retraction?

A

platelets release platelet-derived growth factor (pdgf) which causes vessel wall rebuilding

130
Q

What is fibrinolysis

A

the “clot dissolving plasmin; a fibrin digesting enzyme that removed unneeded clots after healing

131
Q

What are the words that make up the term “Thromboemblolic”?

A

thrombus “a blood clot in the vessel”
embolus “a thrombus that breaks away from the vessel wall and floats in the bloodstream
embolism “a blood clot that get stuck in a narrow vessel”

132
Q

What are the different types of anticoagulant drugs?

A

aspirin, heparin, and warfarin (coumadin)

133
Q

What is the purpose of aspirin?

A

an antiprostaglandin drug that blocks platelet accumulation and plug formation

134
Q

What is the purpose of heparin?

A

an anticoagulant drug commonly used in hospitals for heart disease patients and those receiving blood transfusions

135
Q

What is the purpose of warfarin (coumadin)?

A

an anticoagulant drug often used to reduce the risk of stroke in those with atrial fibrillation; a condition where blood pools in the heart

136
Q

Types of Bleeding Disorders

A

thrombocytopenia and hemophilia

137
Q

What is thrombocytopenia?

A

when an individual is deficient in platelets which leads to bleeding from small vessels everywhere

138
Q

Petechiae

A

small purplish spots on the skin (blood accumulations)

139
Q

What is hemophilia?

A

a genetic lack of any clotting factors that affects the bleeding

140
Q

What are the symptoms of hemophilia?

A

physical exertion causes bleeding into the muscles and joints and excruciating pain

141
Q

What are treatments for hemophilia?

A

treatments require blood transfusions of plasma or purified clotting factors

142
Q

What sort of people are affected by type A and type B hemophilia?

A

recessive in males (inherited by their mother’s x chromosome); women (xx) are carriers for the disease but rarely show symptoms

anatomy and physiology ii (24 decks)

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