BLOOD LECTURE Flashcards
Understanding the functions and properties of blood.
1
Q
General Functions of Blood
A
transportation, protection, and regulation
2
Q
How much blood do men have in comparison to women? pH balance?
A
women 4-5L; men 5-6L and both have a pH of 7.35-7.45
3
Q
What are the components of whole blood?
A
plasma, buffy coat (leukocytes and platelets), erythrocytes (red blood cells)
4
Q
What percentage of whole blood do erythrocytes make up?
A
45% of whole blood
5
Q
What percentage of whole blood does plasma make up?
A
55% of whole blood
6
Q
What percentage of whole blood do leukocytes (white blood cells) make up?
A
<1% of whole blood
7
Q
What are the different types of leukocytes?
A
granulocytes and agranulocytes
8
Q
What are the different types of granulocytes?
A
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
9
Q
What are the different types of agranulocytes?
A
lymphocytes and monocytes
10
Q
What is viscosity?
A
the thickness of a fluid
11
Q
What is the result of high blood viscosity on the body?
A
If the blood became overly viscous it would become more difficult for the heart to pump and result in the heart working harder to transport oxygen; strains heart causing low heart rate
12
Q
What is the result of low blood viscosity on the body?
A
If the blood had a low viscosity level or was too thin the heart rate would accelerate because fluids would be moving too quickly throughout the body; blood pressure drops
13
Q
What is osmolarity?
A
the number of dissolved particles in a fluid
14
Q
What is blood’s osmolarity?
A
blood = 280-296mOsm/L mostly because of the nutrients and protein it contains
15
Q
What does whole blood transport?
A
oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, hormones, and heat
16
Q
What does whole blood protect with/ against?
A
whole blood uses leukocytes (white blood cells) to fight against antibodies, clotting, and inflammation
17
Q
What does whole blood regulate?
A
water balance and stabilizes pH balance
18
Q
Kwashiorkor
A
a lack of protein in the body that causes fluid to accumulate in the abdomen
19
Q
What are the components of plasma?
A
water, proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and gases
20
Q
Types of Proteins in Plasma
A
albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen
21
Q
What is the most abundant solute in plasma?
A
proteins; used for clotting, defense, and transport
22
Q
What are albumins?
A
the smallest and most abundant plasma proteins which are also most responsible for blood osmolarity and transportation
23
Q
Components of Plasma Nutrients
A
glucose, AA, fats, cholesterol, phospholipids, vitamins, and minerals; absorbed by the digestive tract
24
Q
Components of Plasma Electrolytes
A
sodium accounts for more blood osmolarity than any other solute (90% of cations)
25
Components of Plasma Waste
toxic end products of catabolism; urea
26
Hematopoiesis
the production of all types of blood cells; red, white, and platelets
27
Where does hematopoiesis occur?
hematopoiesis primarily occurs in the red bone marrow of flat bones
28
Types of Hematopoiesis
erythropoiesis, leukopoiesis, and thrombopoiesis
29
Erythropoiesis
the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes)
30
Leukopoiesis
the production of white blood cells (leukocytes)
31
Thrombopoiesis
the production of platelets
32
How many red blood cells per second does erythropoiesis produce?
produces approx. 3 million per second; destroys approx. 3 million per second to maintain homeostasis
33
What is the creation process for erythrocytes (red blood cells)?
hemocytoblast (stem cell) -> proerythroblast -> erythroblast -> normoblast -> reticulocyte -> erythrocyte
34
How long does it take for an erythrocyte to develop?
3-5 days involving the reduction in cell size, synthesis of hemoglobin, and loss of nucleus
35
What is the result of a low blood cell count?
a blood cell count results in hypoxemia (oxygen deficiency in blood) to kidneys
36
What is the kidneys response to a low blood count?
the kidneys release erythropoietin (EPO) to stimulate the bone marrow and increase the red blood count; takes 3-4 days
37
What is the main nutritional requirement for erythropoiesis?
iron; urination, defecation, and bleeding are the main causes of iron loss
38
What are natural stimulants of erythropoiesis?
being at high altitudes, an increase in exercise, or blood vessel hemorrhaging
39
How much iron do men need in comparison to women?
men 0.9mg/day; women 1.7mg/day; it's suggested that the individual takes much more than is nutritionally recommended
40
Why should individuals consume so much iron?
because it is absorbed very slowly and sometimes not at all
41
How is iron converted within the body?
stomach acid coverts Fe+3 into Fe+2 and then it's absorbed into the blood; it is then used to make hemoglobin (bone marrow) and myoglobin (muscle)
42
What are B12 and Folic Acid used for?
rapid cell division
43
What are Vitamin C and Copper used for?
they are cofactors for enzymes synthesizing in red blood cells
44
What are Leukocytes?
different variations of white blood cells
45
What is the process of leukocyte production?
mature leukocytes release CSF in response to infections that stimulate white blood cell (leukocyte) production
46
Where are leukocytes stored?
leukocytes are stored in red bone marrow (10-20 times as much as erythrocytes); bone marrow releases the granulocytes and monocytes when needed
47
Life Span of Granulocytes
they stay in the bloodstream for 8 hours until they return into the tissue; only live 5 days after the infection is gone
48
Life Span of Monocytes
they stay in the bloodstream after 20 hours until they transform into macrophages; may live on for years
49
Life Span of Lymphocytes
may last decades circulating between blood, tissue, and lymph nodes; provide long-term immunity
50
What is the process of platelet production (thrombopoiesis)?
hemocytoblast develops receptor for thrombopoietin from liver or kidney and becomes a megakaryoblast
51
Megakaryoblast
repeatedly replicates its DNA without dividing to form a giant cell called a megakaryocyte; in the bone marrow
52
What are the functions of a megakaryocyte
cytoplasm folds into itself and splits off cell fragments that enter the bloodstream as platelets
53
How long do platelets live?
10 days
54
Where are platelets stored?
they're stored in the spleen and are released when needed
55
Form of Erythrocytes
disc-shaped red blood cells that transport gases
56
Function of Erythrocytes
transports gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide; also contain hemoglobin
57
Components of Erythrocytes
an increased surface/ volume ratio due to lack of organelles
increases the diffusion rate of substances in/ out of the cell
58
Carbonic Anhydrase (CAH)
an enzyme contained in RBC that produces carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water
59
What percentage of an erythrocytes cytoplasm is hemoglobin?
33%; hemoglobin delivers the oxygen to the anatomical systems and transports carbon dioxide back to the lungs
60
What is the significance of carbonic anhydrase?
it contributes to gas transportation and pH balance
61
what makes up hemoglobin (Hb)?
4 protein chains called globins each containing an iron pigment which attaches to an oxygen molecule
62
What is the carrying capacity of hemoglobin?
each hemoglobin molecule (protein chain) can carry 4 oxygen
63
How many hemoglobin do each red blood cell (erythrocyte) contain?
around ~250 million hemoglobin molecules or ~1 billion oxygen molecules per red blood cell
64
What is an indication of the amount of oxygen then blood can carry?
the red blood cell count and its hemoglobin concentration
65
Hematocrit (Hct)
another term for "formed element"; the packed cell volume/ percentage of blood composed of cells
66
The ratio between men and women's packed cell volume (hematocrit)
Men: 42% - 52%
Women: 37% - 48%
67
The average red blood cell (erythrocyte) count ratio between men and women
Men: 4.6 - 6.2 million/uL
Women: 4.2 - 5.4 million/uL
68
What is the average hemoglobin (Hb) ratio between men and women
Men: 13 - 18 g/dL
Women: 12 - 16 g/dL
69
Life Span of Erythrocytes
120 days
69
Why are there differences in men and women's erythrocyte and hemoglobin concentrations?
Men have androgens (hormones) that stimulate erythrocyte production more frequently than women; women also experience periodic blood loss through menstruation
70
Why don't red blood cells (erythrocytes) regenerate?
the cell membrane weakens overtime and without a nucleus or ribosomes, it can't repair itself
71
Where do red blood cells typically die?
the spleen or "erythrocyte graveyard" consists of narrow channels that test the strength of old erythrocyte membranes; if the membrane is too weak, they cell tears apart and dies
72
What do macrophages of the spleen do with dead erythrocytes?
- digest erythrocytes membranes
- separate the heme from the globin
- remove iron from the heme and convert the heme into biliverdin
- converts biliverdin to bilirubin
- bilirubin becomes a bile product of the liver and is excreted in feces
73
Polycythemia
an excess of red blood cells
74
What is polycythemia vera (primary)?
a condition due to a cancer of the erythropoietic cell line in the red bone marrow
75
How high can the red blood cell count be in the case of polycythemia vera?
it can be as high as 11 million/uL; hematocrit level increases to 80%
76
What is secondary polcythemia?
a condition caused by dehydration, emphysema, high altitudes, physical exertion; red blood cell count is only increased to 8 million/uL
77
What are the dangers of polycythemia?
an increased level of red blood cells cause an increase in blood volume, pressure, and viscosity which all can lead to embolism, a stroke, or heart faliure
78
What is an embolism?
a blockage of blood vessels by a blood clot
79
What is cancer?
the abnormal production of a particular cell
80
What are the causes of anemia?
- poor synthesis of erythropoiesis and hemoglobin due to a poor diet (iron deficiency or lack of B12 and pernicious anemia)
- excessive blood loss (an ulcer)
- the destruction of blood cells (can be due to external or internal causes)
81
What are the effects of anemia?
tissue hypoxia (makes you short of breath and lethargic), low blood osmolarity (tissue edema), low blood viscosity (heart races a blood pressure drops)
82
What is sickle cell disease?
a hereditary hemoglobin defect of african americans
83
What is the cause of sickle cell disease?
the recessive allele modifies hemoglobin structure; creates sickle celled hemoglobin (HbS)
84
What sort of people experience sickle cell?
people homozygous for HbS exhibit the disease; if heterozygous for it - they have the sickle trait but hardly any symptoms
85
What was the life expectancy of people with sickle cell disease in 1994?
they were expected to have a terrible horrible death before the age of 50; without treatment child wouldn't live past 2 years
86
What causes the "sickle" shape of sickled cells to occur?
hemoglobin sickle turns into a gel in low oxygen causing the elongation of the cell into a sickle shape
87
What is the result of sickle shaped cells?
the cells become sticky and begin to block vessels and cause intense pain as wells as kidney and heart faliure, and strokes
88
Where did sickle cell originate?
it originated in Africa where many people die of malaria; a parasite that feeds on the hemoglobin in a red blood cell
89
Why is sickle cell originating in Africa significant?
sickled celled hemoglobin is indigestible to malaria parasites; making them resistant to malaria
90
What are the different types of granulocytes ( a type of leukocyte)?
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
91
What are the characteristics of granulocytes?
they contain cytoplasmic granules, are large, shorter lifespans than erythrocytes, have lobed nuclei, and are phagocytic
92
What percentage of leukocytes do neutrophils make up?
50-70% and increase during bacterial infections; they are common because they kill bacteria on a daily basis
93
What is a "respiratory burst"?
the generation of highly damaging free radicals that attack invading bacteria/ fungi after engulfed by the cell
94
What do neutrophils do?
they phagocytize (kill and ingest) bacteria and release antimicrobial chemicals (e.g. peroxidases, hydrolytic enzymes, and defensins)
95
What percentage of leukocytes do eosinophils make up?
1-4% and increase in parasitic infections or allergies
96
What do eosinophils do?
they release enzymes to destroy parasites such as roundworms and flatworms that are too large to phagocytized
97
How do worms (parasites) get into the body?
They are typically ingested from foods (like raw fish)
98
What percentage of leukocytes do basophils make up?
0.5% and increase in chickenpox , diabetes, or allergies
99
What do basophils do?
they secrete histamine (a vasodilator) and heparin (an anticoagulant); histamine also attracts other white blood cells to the infection site
100
What are the different types of agranulocytes (a type of leukocyte)?
lymphocytes and monocytes
101
What are the characteristics of agranulocytes?
they have no visible granules, have spherical or kidney-shaped nuclei
102
Which type of agranulocyte has spherical nuclei?
lymphoctes
103
Which type of agranulocyte has kidney-shaped nuclei?
monocytes
104
What percentage of leukocytes do lymphocytes make up?
more than 25% and increase in diverse infections and immune responses
105
What do lymphocytes do?
destroy cancer as well a foreign and virally infected cells;
present antigens to activate other immune cells;
secrete antibodies and provide immune memory;
include T and B cells
106
What percentage of leukocytes do monocytes make up?
4.8% and increase in viral infections and inflammation
107
Which type of white blood cell (leukocyte) is the largest?
monocytes are the largest leukocyte
108
What do monocytes do?
they differentiate into macrophages and phagocytize pathogens and debris; they also present antigens to activate other immune cells
109
Leukopenia
a low blood cell count caused by radiation, cancer drugs, poisons, and infectious disease that elevate the risk of infection
110
Leukocytosis
a high white blood cell count caused by infection, allergy, and disease
111
Leukemia
cancer of the hemopoietic tissue that causes uncontrolled leukocyte production (immature cells incapable or protecting the body)
112
What are the terms (myeloid/ lymphocytic) leukemia named after?
it's named after a type of cell involved (myeloid leukemia) involves myoblast cells; lymphocytic leukemia involves lymphocytes
113
What is acute leukemia?
fast advancing cancer of the hemopoietic tissue that comes from stem cells and occurs mostly in kids
114
What is chronic leukemia?
slowly advancing cancer of the hemopoietic tissue that comes from stem cells and ocurrs mostly in adults
115
What are the results of leukemia?
all leukemias are fatal without therapy
116
What are the effects of leukemia?
a normal leukocyte cell percentage is disrupted and the patient is subject to infection, anemia, and impaired clotting
117
What are the treatments for leukemia?
chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone treatments, and bone marrow transplants
118
What is the responsibility of platelets?
they control the bleeding
119
Where do platelets originate from?
they are small fragments of megakaryocytes regulated by thrombopoietin
120
What are the functions of platelets?
they secrete clotting factors for endothelial repair and vasoconstrictors in broken vessels;
form plugs in vessels;
dissolve old blood clots; phagocytize bacteria;
and attract leukocytes to the site of infection
121
What is hemostasis (in terms of platelets)?
it's a series of reactions that stop bleeding
122
What is a vascular spasm?
it's when blood vessels to injury by smooth muscle vasoconstriction which prevents blood loss
123
What is platelet plug formation?
it's when platelets stick to injured and exposed collagen fibers which form a plug closing the break in the vessel wall
124
What do the platelets release during platelet plug formation?
the release chemicals like (adp, serotonin, thromboxane a2) that attracts more platelets to damaged areas and makes them sticky
125
What is coagulation (blood clotting)?
it's when fibrin threads form a mesh that traps erythrocytes and platelets to form a clot
126
What are clotting factors?
they are plasma proteins that transform blood from a liquid to a gel at the injury site
127
When does clot retraction occur?
it generally occurs within 30-60 minutes to stabilize the clot
128
What is the first step of clot retraction?
attached platelets contract (actin/myosin) and pull the ruptured edges of vessels closer together
129
What is the second step of clot retraction?
platelets release platelet-derived growth factor (pdgf) which causes vessel wall rebuilding
130
What is fibrinolysis
the "clot dissolving plasmin; a fibrin digesting enzyme that removed unneeded clots after healing
131
What are the words that make up the term "Thromboemblolic"?
thrombus "a blood clot in the vessel"
embolus "a thrombus that breaks away from the vessel wall and floats in the bloodstream
embolism "a blood clot that get stuck in a narrow vessel"
132
What are the different types of anticoagulant drugs?
aspirin, heparin, and warfarin (coumadin)
133
What is the purpose of aspirin?
an antiprostaglandin drug that blocks platelet accumulation and plug formation
134
What is the purpose of heparin?
an anticoagulant drug commonly used in hospitals for heart disease patients and those receiving blood transfusions
135
What is the purpose of warfarin (coumadin)?
an anticoagulant drug often used to reduce the risk of stroke in those with atrial fibrillation; a condition where blood pools in the heart
136
Types of Bleeding Disorders
thrombocytopenia and hemophilia
137
What is thrombocytopenia?
when an individual is deficient in platelets which leads to bleeding from small vessels everywhere
138
Petechiae
small purplish spots on the skin (blood accumulations)
139
What is hemophilia?
a genetic lack of any clotting factors that affects the bleeding
140
What are the symptoms of hemophilia?
physical exertion causes bleeding into the muscles and joints and excruciating pain
141
What are treatments for hemophilia?
treatments require blood transfusions of plasma or purified clotting factors
142
What sort of people are affected by type A and type B hemophilia?
recessive in males (inherited by their mother's x chromosome); women (xx) are carriers for the disease but rarely show symptoms
