Block 2 - Respiratory Systems (1-2) Flashcards
1
Q
What structures are part of the upper respiratory system?
A
Nose, Nasal cavity, Paranasal sinuses and Pharynx
2
Q
Example of an upper respiratory infection
A
Sinusitis
3
Q
What type of enclosure do the ribs form?
A
A conical enclosure
4
Q
How many true, false and floating ribs do we have?
A
True: 7
False: 4
Floating: 2
5
Q
3 muscles of inspiration (aside from the external intercostal and diaphragm )
A
Sternocleidomastoid
Scalene
Parasternal intercostals
6
Q
4 muscles of expiration (aside from the internal intercostal)
A
External and internal abdominal oblique
Transverse and rectus abdominis
7
Q
What happens to the lungs in normal expiration to decrease the volume of the thorax?
A
Elastic recoil
8
Q
What happens to the abdominal cavity during inspiration?
A
It expands
9
Q
Define transverse expansion
A
Elevation of the lateral shaft of the rubs
Bucket handle
10
Q
Define anteroposterior expansion
A
Superior and anterior upwards movement of the sternum
Pump handle
11
Q
What is the role of the conducting division?
A
Cleanse, warm and humidify incoming air
12
Q
3 structures in the respiratory division
A
Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli
13
Q
What is the external part of the nose made from?
A
Bone, Cartilage, Facial muscle, Skin
14
Q
What are the holes at the back of the nose called? (NOT the holes in the back of the skull)
A
Posterior nasal apeture
15
Q
Where are olfactory muscosa found?
A
The roof of the nasal cavity
16
Q
What type of epithelium is the respiratory mucosa?
What other cells are present
A
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Goblet cells
17
Q
Where is the sphenoepithelial recess?
A
Superior to the superior conchae
18
Q
How does the sinuses make the head lighter?
A
Bone is heavy; air is light
19
Q
What does the sphenoepithelial recess open into?
A
Sphenoid sinus
20
Q
What does the superior meatus open into?
A
Ethmoid sinus
21
Q
What does the middle meatus open into?
A
Ethmoid, frontal and maxillary sinus
22
Q
What does the inferior meatus open into?
A
Nasolacrimal duct
23
Q
Where are tears produced from?
A
The lacrimal gland
24
Q
What does inflammation in the nose affect?
A
Speech
25
Where does the pharynx end?
Cricoid cartilage
26
What does the superior constrictor muscle attach to?
| What does the middle and inferior constrictor muscles attach to?
Superior: Cranium base
| Middle and inferior: Cricoid cartilage
27
Where does the nasopharynx run from and to?
From the skull base to the uvula and soft palate
28
Where does the oropharynx run from and to?
From the soft palate to the epiglottis
29
Where does the laryngenopharynx run from and to?
From the epiglottis to the cricoid
30
What is the role of the eustachian tube?
| What part of the ear does it run from?
Equalises pressure between the ear and environment by letting fluid out
Middle ear
31
What is the name of a middle ear infection?
Otis media
32
Where are the pharyngeal and tubal tonsils?
| What is their role?
Nasopharynx
| Lymphoid tissue
33
How do tonsils become inflamed?
Increased blood flow to the area
34
Where are the palatine and lingual tonsils?
| What is their role?
Oropharynx
| Digestion
35
What 2 structures is the larynx made from?
Cartilage and ligaments
36
What are the 3 unpaired components of the larynx?
Epiglottis, thyroid cartilage and cricoid cartilage
37
What are the 3 paired components of the larynx?
Artenynoid, cuneiform and corniculate
38
Which is the superior and inferior vocal fold: false or true?
Superior: False
Inferior: True
39
What are the vocal folds mainly made from?
Ligamentous bands of artenynoid that run from the thyroid cartilage
40
2 characteristics of the cricoid cartilage
Continuous ring
| Larger at the front than back
41
Which cartilage forms the lower boundary of the larynx?
Cricoid cartilage
42
What vertebral level does the cricoid cartilage end at?
C6
43
How long is the trachea?
10-15cm long
44
What type of cartilage and muscle is the trachea made from?
Hyaline cartilage
| Trachealis muscle
45
3 terms to describe where the trachea bifurcates into the bronchi
What vertebral level is it?
Carnia
Angle of Louis
Manubriosternal angle
T4/5
46
Which bronchus is more horizontal?
| 2 other characteristics?
Left bronchus
| Longer and closer to the carnia
47
Which bronchi will most likely have a foreign object in it?
The more vertical one
48
What controls regular breathing?
A central neural rhythm controlled by the dorsal and ventral respiratory centres in the brain?
49
Where in the brain are the dorsal and ventral respiratory centres found?
Below the medulla
50
Which nerve controls breathing?
PHRENIC
51
What is the pH of the blood detected by?
| 2 things; 4 places
Cerebral spinal fluid and chemoreceptors in the 4th ventricle and ventral medulla
Chemoreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid body
52
What are the 3 zones of the ventral medulla which are able to detect blood pH?
Rostal, Caudal and Chemosensitive zones
53
3 diseases/disorders which can cause hyperventilation
Diabetic ketoacidosis, renal failure and aspirin overdose
54
Which enzyme converts carbon dioxide to carbonic acid?
Carbonic anhydrase
55
What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 respiratory failure?
Type 1: Decreased oxygen and Increased carbon dioxide
| Type 2: Kidneys retain carbon dioxide to balance pH
56
What type of drug is carbon dioxide?
| What does it cause?
A narcotic
| Sleep and death
57
Why will you cause more harm to a COPD patient if you give them oxygen?
They are hypOventilating
| Their carbon dioxide levels will increase
58
2 hormones which cause hyperventilation
| When?
Progesterone (pregnancy)
| Adrenaline (anxiety)
59
What happens to calcium if the carbon dioxide levels decrease?
Calcium becomes less ionised
| More nerve impulses
60
How does the body prevent anaerobic respiration from occurring during exercise?
Mechanoreceptors in the joints detect movement so respiration rate increases before anaerobic respiration starts
61
Is the vagus nerve mainly made from the sympathetic or parasympathetic system?
What neurotransmitter does it therefore release a lot of?
Parasympathetic
| Ach
62
What does the vagus nerve supply?
Airway, gut, heart, larynx, lung sensation + palate
63
What happens if gas leaks into the pleura?
The lungs have limited expansion
64
Which airways does air often and not often reach?
Often reaches the large airways
| Reaches the smaller airways less often
65
Define FRC
Functional residual capacity
| Normal breath out
66
Define TLC
Total lung capacity
| Exaggerated breath in
67
Define RV
Residual volume
| Exaggerated breath out
68
What happens to FEV1 and FEC in obstructive and restrictive disorders?
Obstructive: FEV1 decreases but FEC stays the same
Restrictive: FEV1 stays the same but FEC decreases
69
Where does scalloping occur on a COPD graph?
After the peak
70
What happens to the movement of the bucket handle with a patient with COPD?
The bucket handle is moved IN not OUT
71
What receptor causes cough?
| How is it activated?
P2X3
| Cell damage releases ATP which binds to this receptor
72
Define aspiration
Inhalation of a foreign material
73
How do ACE inhibitors cause cough?
They increase nerve sensitivity
74
Most common demographic cough presentation?
Middle-aged women
75
What is cough due to?
Nerve sensitivity
76
What is the medical name for chronic cough?
| What is it caused by?
Cough hypersensitive syndrome
| Increased nerve sensitivity
77
3 receptors that cause cough?
| When/where
TRP A1 receptor: Cough in cold weather
TRP V1 receptor: Cough in warm weather
Chilli receptor: On airway nerves
78
What 3 structures are together in mammals and babies?
What does this form?
Which structure has moved away in humans?
Epiglottis, soft palate and arytenoid cartilage form a valve
| Soft palate has moved away
79
Which is superior and inferior: the ectoderm or endoderm
Superior: Ectoderm
Inferior: Endoderm
80
What type of membrane is the pleural, pericardium and peritoneal embranes?
What is their role?
Membranes are a type of mesothelial
| Decrease friction
81
What membrane does the mouth form from?
Oropharyngeal membrane
82
What membrane forms tubes for the urine and faeces?
Cloacal membrane
83
During embryonic development; what 2 directions does folding occur in?
Vertically and horizontally
84
What is the membrane on the inside and outside of the yolk sac called?
Inside: Endoderm
Outside: Splanchnopleuric mesoderm
85
What is the coelom?
| What does it do?
A fluid-filled cylindrical chamber that surrounds the gut tube
It splits the pericardia and peritoneal cavity by the diaphragm
86
What membrane do the lung buds arise from?
Endoderm
87
What are the pericardioperitoneal canals?
2 openings on either side of the gut tube (posteriorly) made by the septum transversum
Ensure that the thoracic and abdominal cavities are not completely separated
88
What happens to the pleuropericardial folds?
They fold coronally and zip together separating the pericardium and pleural cavity
89
What 2 things do the pleuropericardial folds contain?
The phrenic nerve and common cardial vein
90
How big is the pleural cavity?
Negligible at birth
91
Where do the pleuroperitoneal membranes grow?
When?
What is their role?
Grows transversely out of the back wall
At the same time as the pleuropericardial folds are folding
Zips up the canals at the back of the septum transversum
92
What vertebral level is the septum transversum?
C3-C5
93
Where do precusor myoblasts migrate from?
| What do they bring other than muscle?
Lateral body walls
| Nerve supply
94
What 4 structures make up the diaphragm?
Dorsal mesentary of oesophagus
Mesoderm of the body wall
Pleuroperitoneal membranes
Septum transversum
95
What is the congenital condition where the diaphragm has holes in the back?
Congenital diaphragmatic herniation
96
What is the congenital condition when the abdominal cavity leaks into the thoracic cavity?
Lung compression hypoplasia
97
Where does the thorax run from and to?
Neck to diaphragm
98
What are the 3 cavities in the thorax?
| What do they contain?
2 pulmonary cavities: Lungs
| 1 central mediastinum : Thoracic structures and heart
99
What is the apex of the lungs?
| Where does it extend to?
Top of the lungs
| Extends to the root of the neck, above the clavicles
100
Which surface is the hilum found in?
Mediastinal surface
101
What are the 2 recesses found in the pleurae?
Costodiaphragmatic recess: Space at the bottom of the lung
| Costomediastinal recess: Space at the sides of the lung
102
Which recess expands upon breathing?
Costomediastinal
103
What are the 3 surfaces of the lungs?
Diaphragmatic: base
Mediastinal: Medial surface
Costal: Contact with the ribs
104
What are the 3 borders of the lungs?
Anterior
Posterior
Inferior: Covers the diaphragmatic surface
105
Which fissure is found in both lungs and which fissure is only found in the right?
Both: OBLIQUE fissure
Right: Horizontal fissure
106
What lobes do you auscultate if you are auscultating from the back?
Where are these lobes found?
What position does the patient have to be in?
Superior lobe: Above the scapula line/ 6th rib
Inferior lobe: Below the scapula line/ 6th rib
Hands must be on the back of the head
107
Where is the horizontal and oblique fissure found if you are auscultating from the side?
Horizontal fissure: Crosses the mid-auxiliary line at rib 5 and runs to the bottom of rib 4
Oblique fissure: Crosses the mid-auxiliary line at rib 5/6 and runs to the bottom of rib 6
108
If you are auscultating from the front, where would you auscultate for each lobe and the apex?
Apex: Above the clavicle
Superior lobe: Above rib 4
Middle lobe: 4-6th rib
Inferior lobe: Below rib 6
109
Which lines down the chest do the ribs run in?
Sternal line until the 4th costal cartilage
Right: Diverges due to the notch
Left: Runs in the parasternal line from 4th-6th costal cartilage
110
When does the lung pass the mid-auxiliary line?
Rib 8
111
When does the lung pass the mid-scapula line?
Rib 10
112
What is different about when the pleural border passes the rib landmarks?
2 ribs inferior
113
Which pleura surround the hila?
| What does an excess of this cause?
Parietal plura
| Pulmonary ligament
114
What order do structrues enter the hila?
Bronchus BEHIND veins
Right artery anterior to bronchus
Left artery superior to bronchus
115
What are the lateral borders of the mediastinum?
Mediastinal pleurae
| Part of the parietal pleurae
116
What is another term to describe the location of the neck root?
Thoracic inlet
117
Where does the thoracic plane run?
Runs from the manubrio-sternal joint to the T4/T5 vertebrae
118
What is the manubrio-sternal joint?
The joint between the two sternal bones and where the second costal cartilage joins
119
Which part of the mediastinum is further divided?
Inferior mediastinum
120
What are the three vessels running from the aortic arch?
| What order do they run in?
Brachiocephalic trunk (R subclavian - R common carotid)
Left common carotid
Left subclavian
121
What plane sits on top of the heart?
Thoracic plane
122
What veins bring blood back to the heart?
Brachiocephalic veins
123
What are the 7 structures found in the superior mediastinum?
Aortic arch, Brachiocephalic veins, Oesophagus, Phrenic nerve, Thoracic duct, Trachea, Vagus nerve
124
Where is the anterior inferior mediastinum?
3 structures found in it
1 extra structure found in an adult/infant
Between the sternum and the heart
Lymph nodes, Sternopericardial ligaments, Thoracic vessels
Adult: Fibro-fatty connective tissue
Infant: Thymus gland
125
What is the role of sternopericardial ligaments?
Keep the heart in place
126
Where is the middle inferior mediastinum?
| 6 structures found in it
The membrane which surrounds the heart
Deep cardiac pleux, Great vessels, Heart, Pericardium, Phrenic nerve, Pulmonary vasculature
127
What is the deep cardiac pleux?
Nerves which innervate the heart
128
Where is the posterior inferior mediastinum?
| 6 structures found in it
Behind the heart and in front of the thoracic vertebrae
Azygous vein (hemiazygous and accessory hemiazygous too), Descending thoracic aorta, Lymph nodes, Oesophagus, Thoracic duct, Vagus nerve
129
What organ does the vagus nerve run alongside?
Oesophagus
130
Where is the azygous vein?
| What is its role?
Either side of the superior and inferior vena cava
| Gives another route for blood into the heart in case there is a blockage
131
What do bronchioles not have that the bronchi and trachea does have?
Cartilage
132
```
What generation of the respiratory tree are these structures found?
Small bronchi
Bronchioles
Respiratory bronchi
Alveoli
```
Small bronchi: 5th - 11th
Bronchioles: 12th
Respiratory bronchi: 16th
Alveoli: 23rd
133
What epithelia is found between the nasal passage and small bronchi?
Pseudostratified
134
What are the 3 cell types found between the nasal passage and small bronchi?
Ciliated: Mucociliary escalator
Goblet: Secrete mucus
Basal: Stem cells (e.g. olfactory epithelium)
135
What are the two layers of the epithelium in the nose and oropharynx?
Mucosal layer
| Respiratory epithelium
136
What 2 layers is the respiratory epithelium made from?
Sol layer on the BOTTOM: Cilia
| Gel mucous layer on the TOP: mucus
137
What do irritant particles activate?
| What does this lead to?
They activate irritant receptors leading to removal
138
What do bronchioles have instead of goblet cells?
| What are these also known as?
Club cells
| Bronchiolar exocrine cells
139
Where does the Lamina Propria lie?
Basal and Goblet cells --> Epithelium --> Muscle --> Lamina Propria
140
What 6 structures are found in the Lamina Propria?
Blood vessels, cartilage, loose connective tissue, lymphoid cells, nerves and secretory glands
141
What does mucus protect?
Mucosa
142
What type of membrane does mucus create?
A semi-permeable membrane allowing nutrient exchange but no exchange of pathogens
143
Where are smaller particles deposited in the airways?
| By what process?
Smaller particles deposited in smaller airways by sedimentation
144
What is the epithelium found in the mucus layer?
Pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar epithelium
145
How does the nervous system cause the release inflammatory mediators?
Vagus nerve releases Ach via the parasympathetic division
Increased secretion of the bronchial gland
Increased mediator release
146
When are inflammatory mediators released from the bronchial gland?
When the cilia or mucus is impaired?
| Due to anaesthetic, dehydration, genetic or smoking
147
What cells control the composition of mucus?
The epithelium
148
What does mucus contain?
Mucins: A high molecular weight glycoprotein
Alpha-Antitrypsin: Inhibits protease release from pathogens
Lysozymes: Anti-bacterial and anti-fungal
Lactoferrin, peroxisomes and defensins: anti-fungal
149
How do neutrophils destroy the alveoli in COPD?
Increased neutrophils causes decreases alpha-antitrypsin
| This means the alveioli is exposed for neutrophil destruction
150
What blood supply warms the blood in the nose?
Venous pleux
151
How many rings does the cartilage have?
16-20
152
What supplies the bronchi with blood?
Bronchial arteries
153
How is the smooth muscle arranged in the bronchioles?
In helical bands
154
What is the passage from the terminal bronchioles to the alveoli?
Terminal bronchioles - Respiratory bronchioles - Alveolar ducts - Alveolar sacs - Alveoli
155
What is the epithelium from the nasal mucosa to the terminal bronchioles?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
156
What is the epithelium in the bronchioles?
Simple ciliated cuboidal
157
What is the epithelium in the respiratory bronchiole?
Simple cuboidal
158
What does the nasal mucosa contain aside from epithelium?
Basement membrane, cilia, goblet cells, lamina propria
159
What percantage of the alveoli are type 1 and 2?
Type 1: 95%
| Type 2: 5%
160
Type 1 pneumocyte:
Type of epithelium?
Type of junction?
What are they fused with?
What interface do they form?
Simple squamous
Occluding junctions
Fused with the basement membrane of the capillary epithelium
Blood-gas interface
161
Type 2 pneumocyte:
Type of epithelium?
Type of junction?
What 2 things do they produce?
5 characteristics of the structure?
Cuboidal
Occluding junctions
Surfactant and lymphoid cells
Thicker, larger, rapidly dividing
Fluid and elastic layer
162
What is surfactant and where is it produced?
A phospholipid produced in lamellar bodies
163
When is surfactant hydrophilic/hydrophobic?
Hydrophilic in mucus
| Hydrophobic in air
164
What is surface tension?
What is compliance?
How does surfactant work?
Surface tension from stretch and recoil collapses small airways as high pressure is needed to keep them open
Decreased lung volumes causes compliance
Surfactant decreases surface tension and compliance to prevent alveolar collapse
165
What connects neighbouring alveoli?
Pores of Kohn
166
2 examples of leukocytes
Neutrophils and lymphocytes
167
What macrophages are found in the alveoli?
What do they do?
4 things they secrete
Alveolar macrophages
Phagocytose
Chemokines, cytokines, interleukins and tumour necrosis factor
168
What 4 things do mast cells secrete?
Heparin, Histamine, 5HT and enzymes
169
What do natural killer cells contain?
Hydrolytic enzymes that secrete interferons, cytokines and tumour necrosis factor
170
What two cells do dendritic cells signal?
Specialised mononuclear pathogens
| Antigen presenting cells
171
Where is BALT found?
Lamina propria
172
What will affect gas exchange?
Anything interfering with the blood-brain barrier
173
Define hyperpnoea
Increased breathing
174
What triggers the cough reflex?
Irritation of irritant receptors in the respiratory tract
175
What 2 structures limit things from entering the airways?
Bronchiole and laryngeal constrictions
176
What triggers the sneezing reflex?
Irritation of olfactory receptors and trigeminal nerve endings in the nasal mucous membrane
177
What nerve is involved in the cough reflex?
Vagus
178
What nerves are involved in the sneezing reflex?
| Where do the sensory nerves run to?
Sensory: Trigeminal and olfactory to the medulla
Motor: Trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus and intercostal nerves
179
What three muscles contract when you sneeze?
Pharyngeal, tracheal and respiratory
180
What three region stimulate the swallowing reflex?
Tongue, soft palate and epiglottis
181
What reflex stops respiration whilst you are swallowing?
Deglutination reflex
182
Where are stretch receptors found?
What nerve is involved?
What type of inspiration is caused?
Smooth muscle of the bronchial walls
| Vagus nerve sends sensory input to cause short and shallow inspiration
183
How does the Herig-Breur inspiratory reflex work?
Pressure increased - stretch receptor activated - muscles decrease
184
What does the deflation rflex cause
Increase in inspiratory muscle activity
185
What are 'J' receptors?
| Where are they found?
Juxtapulmonary receptors
| Found in alveolar and bronchial arteries close to the capillaries
186
What is the nervous supply to the J receptors?
Unmyelinated C-fibres
| Vagus nerve
187
What do the J receptors cause?
Apnoea; Constricted laynx; Decreased heart rate and blood pressure ;Rapid/slow breathing; Relaxation of skeletal muscle
188
What are J receptors activated by?
Congestion, embolisms, histamine and pulmonary odema
189
How does stretching of the digestive contents cause decreased breathing?
Signals to the stretch receptors and the medulla's respiratory centre
190
What 2 things does the dive reflex cause?
| What does this lead to?
Decreased heart rate and peripheral vasoconstriction causes drowning
191
What can proprioceptors in the muscles/joints of the respiratory system do?
Which muscle does not have this ability?
Detect weight on muscles so increase respiration when there is increased weight
The diaphragm
192
How does pain alter breathing?
Brief apnoea
| Rapid and shallow breathing
193
What two things do trigeminal and larynx receptors cause?
Apnoea and laryngeal spasm
194
Define pulmonary ventilation
The movement of gases in and out of the lungs
195
How do you calculate pulmonary ventilation?
Respiratory rate x Tidal volume
196
Define tidal volume
| What are the units?
Air taken in and out of the lungs with each breath
| L/min
197
What is the respiratory rate of an adult/child?
Adult: 12-20 breaths per minute
Child: 20-30 breaths per minute
198
What are the two types of dead space?
Anatomical
| Physiological
199
How do you calculate tidal volume?
Dead space + Volume of air entering the alveoli
200
How do you calculate alveolar ventilation?
Respiratory rate x (tidal volume - dead space)
201
How do you calculate total lung capacity?
Vital capacity + Residual volume
202
How do you calculate vital capacity?
Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve volume + Expiratory reserve volume
203
How do you calculate inspiratory capacity?
Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve volume
204
How do you calculate forced residual capacity?
Expiratory reserve + residual volume
205
How do you calculate forced vital capacity?
Maximum breath in + maximum breath out
206
How do you calculate total lung capacity?
Inspiratory reserve + tidal volume + expiratory reserve + residual volume
207
Which two things cannot be measured directly from spirometry?
Residual volume
| Functional residual capacity
208
Give two ways which you can measure residual volume and functional residual capacity
Helium dilution method
| Plethsymography
209
Briefly explain the helium dilution method
Breathe in a chamber filled with helium until an equilibrium is reached then calculate the volume change
210
Briefly explain plethsymography
The patient is placed in a cabin with a known initial pressure and volume
Breathing changes the pressure and volume and this is measured by a transducer
211
What is PEF?
Peak expiratory flow
| Measured by the blowy thing at home
212
Explain the flow volume loop
Expiration: Effort dependent then independent (caused by pressure and air force in lungs, not you)
Equal pressure point: Airways collapse and turbulent air flow
Inspiration: When no more air can be released
213
Where does airway collapse usually occur?
| Where does it occur in asthmatics and why is this an issue?
In the upper airways where there is cartilage to protect
| Occurs lower in asthmatics where there is no protection --> wheezing
214
Why does the sub-atmospheric pressure increase in the intrapleural membrane when you breathe in?
Air drawn in so lung moves out and pleural membranes closer
215
Define total biometric pressure
| Where is it found?
Sum of all the gases; same in inspired and alveolar air
| Alveoli
216
How is the partial pressure of oxygen diluted in the alveoli?
Water vapour humidifies
217
What is the air liquid interface?
The solubility of a gas
218
What is CaO2?
Oxygen bound to haemoglobin x Oxygen dissolved in blood
219
What is SaO2?
Percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen
220
What does the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve show a relationship between?
PaO2
SaO2
CaO2
221
Which Hb chain moves apart to make it easier for oxygen to bind?
Beta
222
What colour is the blood in carbon monoxide poisoning?
Cherry red
223
What is the oxyhaemoglobin curve like in a foetus?
No beta chains means that Hb has an increased affinity for oxygen so gives oxygen up more easily
Curve to the LEFT
224
What is the Haldane effect?
Removing oxygen from haemoglobin increases the ability of haemoglobin to pick up carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions
225
What are the terms for decreased and increased carbon dioxide?
Decreased: Hypocapnia (Alkalosis)
Increased: Hypercapnia (Acidosis)
226
Give 4 metabolic causes of pH changes
Acidosis: renal damage, diabetes and diarrhoea
Alkalosis: vomiting
227
What happens during respiratory acidosis?
Lungs retain carbon dioxide
| Kidneys retain bicarbonate and extrete hydrogen ions
228
What happens during respiratory alkalosis?
Lungs lose carbon dioxide
| Kidneys excrete bicarbonate and retain hydrogen ions
