Biotechnology Flashcards
Name for natural cloning of plants?
Vegetative propagation
Examples of natural cloning in plants?
Runners from strawberry plants, bulbs from a daffodil, stem tubers from potatoes and rhizome (horizontal stem underground) from marram grass
How is asexual reproduction classed as cloning?
It produces genetically identical offspring by mitosis. It makes clones
Examples of food naturally propagated?
Sugar cane, bananas, sweet potatoes
Advantages of natural plant cloning?
Only require ONE parent, increases the population quickly, no breeding season required
What is the name for artificial plant cloning?
Micropropagation
When is artificial plant cloning used?
When a plant cant reproduce, or it is very rare
Disadvantages of natural plant cloning?
No variation (susceptible to diseases), leads to overcrowding, difficulty adapting to environment
Describe the process of taking a cutting and undergoing natural plant cloning?
Create environment for roots to survive, take from a plant in vegetative state (no flowering), cut between nodes at a slant and add auxin rooting powder, replant in compost quickly and spread out, add water to reduce transpiration
Describe the process of micropropagation?
Take sample of tissue (meristem from roots and shoot tips), sterile conditions, place explant in culture medium containing plant hormones, these stimulate mitosis (auxins/cytokines), cells divide and form callus, callus divided up and placed into different mediums and plantlets potted in compost to grow
Disadvantages of micropropagation?
Produces monoculture (lack of diversity), requires skilled workers, expensive, large numbers of new plant can be lost
Advantages of micropropgation?
Rapid production of known genetic make-up, provides a way to reproduce infertile plants, increases numbers of endangered plants
Ways natural cloning in invertebrates occurs?
Binary fission or bacteria, starfish can regenerate damaged fragments of the body, Hydra produce small ‘buds’, Aphids (female insect) can produce without a mate
How are monozygotic twins formed?
Embryo naturally splits into two in the uterus, trigger unknown
Example of natural cloning in vertebrates?
Monozygotic twins
Why do some monozygotic twins still look different?
Due to different levels of nutrients received in utero, also position in uterus
What are the 2 different ways of artificial animal cloning?
Artificial twinning and SCNT
What does SCNT stand for?
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
Describe the process of artificial twinning?
Desirable organism treated with hormones to make ovulate, fertilize and split the embryo, grow in lab, implant into surrogate, embryo develops and is born
What is artificial twinning?
Manually splitting the embryo
How many embryos goes into each surrogate mother?
1 - less risky with one offspring each
Describe the process of SCNT?
Nucleus removed from somatic cell and added to an egg cell that was enucleated. Fused with electric shock to stimulate division, embryo develops and transferred to surrogate to grow
What is a somatic cell?
Adult body cell
In SCNT which animal is the clone of?
The original animal that had the adult somatic cell removed
What is SCNT used for?
Pharming (genetically engineered animals) and GM animals for human transplants too
Which famous animal underwent SCNT?
Dolly the Sheep in 1996
Disadvantages of artificial animal cloning?
Very inefficient, lots of miscarriages, shortened lifespans, expensive, time-consuming
Advantages of artificial animal cloning?
High yield, can reproduce desirable genes, prevents species dying out, clone specific animals eg: race horses
What is pharming?
Producing animals that have been genetically modified for their product
Why do people use micro-organisms?
Reproduce very quickly, shorter life cycle, no welfare or ethical issues, simple, cheap, easily genetically modified
Indirect uses of micro-organisms in food?
Baking (respiration and release of CO2), brewing (fermentation of ethanol), cheese making and yoghurt production
Direct uses of micro-organisms?
Mushrooms and single-celled protein (Quorn)
How does yeast effect wine?
It determines the sweetness and flavour
Define biotechnology?
Applying biological organisms or enzymes to the synthesis, breakdown or transformation of materials in service of people
Advantages of MO in food?
Increased production on demand, can be genetically modified , not dependent on season, not much land needed,
Disadvantages of MO in food?
Need to isolate and purify the protein, cultures can easily be infected, some people just don’t want to eat them, little natural flavoring
Describe how insulin is produced?
Plasmid is extracted from bacteria cell, gets cut using restrictive enzymes, human insulin is added and resealed with DNA ligase, plasmid cells reinserted into bacteria cell, insulin released and purified
What is bioremediation?
Micro-organisms being used to break down pollutants
Explain the different approaches of undergoing bioremediation?
Using natural organisms (eg: in soil and water can neutralize crude oil)
Genetically modified bacteria
Name aseptic techniques?
Sterilize environment and desk using 70% alcohol, heat inoculating loop in Bunsen burner, heat rim of bottles to create updraft, close windows, tape lid shut on either side, prevent putting down equipment whilst using, store agar upside down so no condensation
Describe process of culturing bacteria?
Sterilize environment and inoculating loop, dip into bacterial suspension and make a zig-zag streak across agar petri dish, tape lid shut and incubate
How do you measure the zone of inhibition?
Work out the area using Pi x r squared
What are the 4 phases in bacterial growth graph?
Lag phase, exponential phase, stationary phase and death phase
What happens during each bacterial growth phase?
Lag - Adapting to environment beginning to reproduce
Exponential - Maximum growth rate, close to theoretical
Stationary - Bacteria is dying at the same rate as reproducing [equilibrium]
Death - Reproduction has ceased
Equation for calculating bacteria population size?
Number of bacteria at the start x 2 to the power of divisions
What log number is used when working out bacteria population?
Log 10
Why can’t bacteria population grow indefinitely?
Limiting factors such as O2, nutrients, temp, pH or toxic waste build up
What is a primary metabolite?
A substance that is an essential part of the functioning and growing of a micro-organism
Example of a primary metabolite?
Ethanol in anaerobic respiration
What are secondary metabolites?
Non-essential substances but are still used by micro-organisms
Example of secondary metabolites?
Chemical plant defenses and pigments
Where are secondary metabolites typically produced?
In the stationary phase onwards
2 different process of industrially producing micro-organisms?
Batch and continuous fermentation
Explain how batch production works?
MO inoculated in fixed volume, growth takes place, biomass and waste builds up, growth stops at stationary phase and MO carry out biochemical changes, process stops before death phase and the products are harvested. Cleaned and sterilized ready for next batch culture
Explain how continuous production works?
MO inoculated into sterile medium and begin to grow, adds more nutrient medium once in exponential phase, culture is continually removed and harvested, replenished so that culture volume in bioreactor is constant
Basic structure of a bioreactor?
Motor at the top, compressed air entering the bottom, harvested in the middle at bottom, O2, pH, temp probes inside
Advantages of using isolated enzymes?
Less wasteful, more efficient, more specific - no unwanted enzymes present, no wasteful reactions
Which enzymes are typically used on an industrial scale and why?
Extracellular - easier to isolate as they are generally secreted, cheaper, more adapt to different conditions
Why are intracellular enzymes sometimes used?
There is a larger range of the
Examples of intracellular enzymes used as isolated enzymes?
Penicillin acylase, glucose oxidase and asparaginase
What is glucose oxidase used for?
Food preservation
What is asparaginase used for?
Cancer treatments
What is penicillin acylase used for?
Turning natural penicillin into semi-synthetic more effective drugs
Advantages of immobilized enzymes?
Can be reused- cheaper, more reliable, greater temp tolerance, easily separated
Disadvantages of immobilized enzymes?
Reduced efficiency, higher initial costs of materials - the process of immobilizing, and bioreactor, more technical issues
Ways that enzymes are immobilized?
Adsorption (attachment to surface), covalent/ionic bonding or entrapment
Disadvantage of covalent bonding immobilization?
Active site might be changed in the process
Disadvantage of entrapment?
Diffusion rate of substrate to product can slowed down, holding up reaction
What does glucose isomerase do?
Used in the conversion of glucose to fructose
