Biology Destroyer part 2 Flashcards
cholesterol is the precursor to
steroid hormones such as cortisone, cortisol, progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, and aldosterone
epinephrine and thyroxin are ? derived
amino acid
ferns:
- are vascular plants with large, feathery leaves
- have large leaves with many veins
- sori develops on the lower surface of the leaf
sori
clusters of sporangia
fern sports develop on the
sporophyte in sporangia
reverse transcriptase is found in
retroviruses
small uncharged polar molecules and lipids can readily move through a
selectively permeable membrane
fungi contain the polymer
chitin
most digestion occurs in the
small intestine
the developing embryo will most likely attach to the
endometriu,
mitosis makes up about ? % of the cell cycle
10%
Photosynthesis:
- CO2 is the carbon source in sugar produced
- the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur in the thylakoid membrane
- the source of O2 produced is the H2O that is split during the light reaction
- the product of the dark reaction of photosynthesis is glucose (sugar)
.
an organism belonging to a ? species will be distinctly male or female.
dioecious; examples are mammals and most reptiles
the greatest specie diversity is seen in the
tropical forest
what is the major form of carbon in the atmosphere
carbon dioxide
secondary succession will occur to an area
that once had life, such as in the case of a forest fire
bacteria illustrate an R-selected population.
.
R-selected population
we see rapid growth, numerous offspring, fast maturation, and very little postnatal care is needed.
Humans illustrate a K-selected population
.
K-selected population
is one in which the members have low reproductive rates and are roughly constant in size
a study revealed that the haploid stage of a life cycle dominated. which organism is most likely being depicted:
a fungi
agonistic behavior
can result if two animals conflict over a mate or food source
xylem will transport
water and minerals from the soil throughout a plant
the casparian strip is a
waxy band in plants that aid in water control
the main solute transported by the phloem is
sucrose
glycogen is a branched polymer of
glucose
glycogen represents a stored energy called ? and is found in
called “potential energy” and is found in skeletal muscle and liver
starch and glycogen are polymers of
alpha glucose
glycogen can be stored
intracellularly
the B-pleated sheet represents a
secondary structure held together by hydrogen bonds
the alpha helix is held together by
hydrogen bonds
myoglobin has a single chain.
.
hemoglobin contains a
quarternary structure
most CO2 in the body is transported in the blood as:
HCO3-, the bicarbonate ion.
in the glomerular filtrate, which molecule should be completely reabsorbed? where does reabsorption take place
glucose; proximal convoluted tubule
which organelle is present in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes?
ribosomes
action potentials cause the release of
neurotransmitters into the synapse
at rest, [K+] inside (</>) [K+]outside
[K+]inside > [K+]outside
few Na+ ions enter a cell under
resting conditions
a neurotransmitter is removed from the synapse either by
enzyme degradation, re-uptake or simple diffusion
nerve gases are inhibitors of
acetylcholinesterase, and cause death by respiratory paralysis
Tay-Sachs disease:
- a critical lysosomal enzyme is absent
- brain cells develop a lipid buildup
- it is an autosomal recessive disorder
- it is fatal in the first five years of human life
blood pressure =
cardiac output x peripheral vascular resistance
as the radius of a blood vessel decreases,
velocity and blood pressure incerase
as cardiac output increases, blood pressure
increases
increasing stroke volume increases
blood pressure
blood pressure is indirectly related to vessel radius to the fourth power. BP =
BP= cardiac output/R^4
blood pressure is directly related to cardiac output, as well as PVR and stroke volume.
.
smooth muscle:
- found in the aorta, pulmonary artery, esophagus, and bladder
- is mononucleated
- involuntary muscle that is slow to contract
- respond to stimulation with action potentials
.
the food and air passages cross where:
pharynx
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2):
- catalase can convert hydrogen peroxide to H2O2 and O2 since it is toxic to cells
- it can be an oxidant (oxidizing agent) such as that found in toothpaste
- peroxisomes are membranous vesicles that contain enzymes to break down H2O2
.
which buffer system works primarily in the intracellular fluids?
phosphate buffer; H2PO4- and HPO4– act as the acid and base respectively. phosphate is an abundant anion in cells and will act as the major intracellular buffer. the pH of the extracellular fluid is maintained by the bicarbonate buffer i.e. HCO3-/H2CO3 system
sequence for inspired air:
nasal cavity->trachea->bronchus->bronchiole->alveoli
the main function of the large intestine is the
resorption of water, sodium, and other minerals
the large intestine harbors bacteria which are the main source of vitamin ? production
vitamin K
the bulk of feces consists of
bacteria, cellulose fibers, and other indigestible substances
glucose and other sugars are absorbed into the blood from the intestinal tract and reach the liver via the
portal vein
consider the following experiment involving Xenopus tadpoles: the tadpole nucleus was inserted into an enucleated egg from a frog that was fertilized. in some cases, the result was several normal tadpoles. what concept does this illustrate?
cell differentiation
a sperm cell is unable to fertilize oocytes upon immediate ejaculation, which process must occur first?
capacitation
malphigian tubules are the excretory organ of
insects
aquatic animals such as bony fish excrete
ammonia because it is easily eliminated in water
birds,insects, and reptiles excrete
uric acid
cells of the proximal convoluted tubule have a huge abundance of
mitochondria
which protein is associated with a flagellum
dynein “motor protein”; also aids in chromosomal movement
flagella and cilia have (? + ?) arrangement of microtubules
9+2
dynein “arms” are attached to the microtubules and serve as molecular
motors
the cytoskeleton is contained within the
cytosol
what are the primary types of fibers comprising the cytoskeleton
microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments
the cytoskeleton is
a network of protein fibers that gives shape to a cell, protects the cell by maintaining structural integrity, and is involved in cellular movements such as contraction and gliding.
intermediate fibers are made of
keratin
microtubules are built by
tubulin
microfilaments are built by
actin
cilia would be most affected by a drug that causes destruction of:
microtubules
if a sample of organismal DNA contains 14% thymine, what percentage of cytosine does it contain?
%A=%T and %C=%G/ therefore 14%T=14%A…adds up to 28. 100-28=72%…72%/2=36%…therefore 36% of cystosine
during gastrulation, the three primary germ layers are formed:
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
acid hydrolases are contained in which cellular organelle
lysosome
skin:
- the epidermis has no blood supply
- the stratum corneum is the surface layer which varies considerably in thickness
- the stratum granulosum is that layer containing granules which can easily stain
- the stratum germinativum contains dividing cells
.
determinate cleavage is a characteristic of
protosomes (mollusk, annelids, and arthropods)
protostomes include
mollusks, annelids, and arthropods
fluid mosaic model for cell membranes:
- membrane proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer
- both proteins and lipids are free to move laterally in the plane of the bilayer
- movement of proteins and lipids is restricted if movement occurs from one face of the bilayer to the other
- carbohydrate moieties attached to either lipids or proteins are exposed to extracellular face of the membrane.
.
crossing over occurs in
prophase I of meiosis
trisomy 21 is also called
down syndrome and is due to non-disjunction
the first meiotic division of an egg cell produces one large cell and one small cell; the smaller cell forming a polar body.
.
the father apart the genes are the, greater the probability of
crossing over
a genetic map involved using
crossover frequencies
the theory or acquired characteristics is associated with:
Lamark
Larmarkian theory
proposed that characteristics acquired by one generation can be inherited by the next. although it is now clear that the theory is FLASE.
enzymes:
- a competitive inhibitor resembles the substrate and competes for the active site
- the active site may contain non-protein constituents which are needed for catalytic efficiency
- in non-competitive inhibition, the inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site
- addition of more substrate can overcome a competitive inhibitor
.
inorganic molecules such as ? and ? were constituents believed to comprise the atmosphere the earliest on earth
NH3 and H2O
most scientists believe that RNA was utilized as the genetic information before
DNA developed
the first cellular organisms were likely
anaerobic heterotrophs
protobionts preceded living cells and were able to maintain an internal environment different from that of their surroundings.
.
desmosomes
attach cells together and give cells mechanical strength, and are abundant in cells such as skin
tight junctions
seal the spaces between cells and prevent cell leakage
intestinal cells
are surrounded by tight junctions that prevent any intestinal content to seep out.
gap junction
will allow cells to exchange nutrients and for “molecular communication”
Down syndrome:
- it may originate through nondisjunction of chromosome 21
- failure of paired homologous to disjoin during Anaphase I or II could result in down syndrome
- it is an autosomal disorder which occurs equally in both sexes.
.
keratin:
- keratins are a family of fibrous proteins
- keratin is found in mammals, reptiles, bird, and amphibians
- claws, horns, hooves and nails of animals contain keratin
- the epidermis is almost waterproof because of its keratin matrix
.
autosomal recessive disorder:
- heterozygotes generally show no symptoms
- when both parents are heterozygous, 50% of the children will be heterozygous
- sickle cell anemia, PKU disease, and galactosemia are examples of autosomal recessive disorders
- sons and daughter are equally likely to inherit a particular autosomal allele
.
which structure allows spindle microtubules to become attached
kinetochore
consider the following ancestral vertebrates: bony fish, jawless fish, mammals, reptiles, birds, and amphibians. arrange them in correct chronological order from oldest to most recent.
jawless fish, bony fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals.
TIP:begin with jawless fish, bony fish. and then say “A Real Bad Man”
an animal-like protist that uses pseudopodia to move and feed is
amoeba
euglena uses a
flagellum
the paramecium uses its
cilia
surfactant reduces surface tension and allows the fetus to breathe easier.
.
surfactants are substances present in the alveoli of the lungs.
.
without adequate quantities of surfactant, an infant would have difficultly breathing.
.
fertilization occurs in the
fallopian tube
little, if any increase in size occurs during gastrulation.
.
a morula of about 32 cells can be seen in the fallopian tube.
.
implantation of the blastocyst occurs with the
endometrial lining the uterus.
around the sixth day, the blastocyst begins to attach to the endometrium of the uterus. About 24 hours after fertilization in the fallopian tube, the zygote undergoes mitosis, giving rise to two daughter cells. These cells in turn divide into 4 cells, then 8, then 16, and so forth. With each subsequent division, the cells become smaller and smaller. This is called cleavage. After about 3 days, a solid ball of about 32 cells form; it is called a morula. The embryo does not grow during cleavage. The morula cells continue to divide for 4 days to form a blastocyst that implants in the uterus. This implantation in the uterus (endometrium) occurs about day 6.
.
the light energy form the sum is the ultimate source of energy for the vast majority of organisms on planet earth. This energy is harvested and converted into various forms. Which law of thermodynamics is illustrated?
first law of thermodynamics
which structure is found between heart muscle cells?
intercalated disks
ATP synthase is associated with which of the following? ribosomes chloroplasts mitochondria golgi body
chloroplasts and mitochondria
the more highly specialized a tissue is, the less will be its capacity for regeneration.
.
cartilage arises from
mesenchyme
cartilage can be found in the
trachea, external ear, larynx, and external auditory canal
cartilage is an avascular form of
connective tissue
A gastrula was exposed briefly to a weak penetrating beam of alpha particles. which tissue would be most affected as development proceeded?
only the outermost gastrula layer would be damaged since a weak beam of alpha particles was used. the outermost layer is called the ectoderm. nervous system tissue is derived from this layer and would most likely be affected to the greatest extent.
birds:
- are warm-blooded and have a 4 chambered heart
- classified in class Aves
- the penguin and ostrich are birds that cannot fly
.
what is the fate of lactic acid produced in muscles?
it enter the Cori cycle
the blood transports lactate to the
liver
Cori cycle allows the conversion of
lactate back into glucose, which can be carried back to the muscles via the blood.
the glyoxylate cycle occurs in
plants and bacteria
B-oxidation of fatty acids occur in the
matrix of the mitochondria
fatty acid oxidation results in the
formation of Acetyl CoA
fatty acid synthesis occurs in the
cytosol
protein molecules may be modified by addition of sulfate, carbohydrate, or lipid groups to the side chains of certain amino acids. which cellular organelles best describes this primary modification site?
Golgi complex
columnar epithelial tissue
these cells occur in one or more layers and are elongated. usually found near the base of the cell. some can be ciliated and found in the nose and fallopian tubes
cuboidal
square shaped cells; can be found in ducts of the glands
squamous
thin flat plates with elliptical nuclei
cloning:
- has been done on mice, cows, pigs, rabbits, and goats
- pig tissues and organs are very similar to humans
- an animal can be cloned by a technique called somatic cell nuclear transfer
- if a clone has chromosomes with short telomeres, it will likely age faster than normal
.
ways in which foreign DNA can be introduced into an organism’s genome
microinjection and viral vectors
a sheep was the world’s first clone of an adult mammal
.
recombinant DNA technology can be employed to make molecules such as human insulin.
.
recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering is often called
cloning
plasmids may contain as few as two genes or as many as several hundred.
.
if a plasmid becomes incorporated into a chromosome, it is called
an episome
plasmids are double-stranded circular
DNA
what is a promoter site?
the site on DNA at which RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription
a suitable vector for recombinant DNA cloning can be
plasmids and bacteriophages
recent studies have indicated that insulin-producing B-cells undergo cellular death in diabetes. This is an example of:
apoptosis
hypertrophy
the increase in size of a cell
a single gene sometimes affects many traits in an organism. this is called
pleiotrophy
epistatic gene
one that covers up the expression of another gene in the phenotype. two genes are involved in the so called “cover-up” or epistasis. such interactions are common among gene pairs that affect skin color or fur color in mammals.
the phenomenon that occurs when one gene pair masks or modifies the expression of another gene pair is called:
epistasis
consider the insulin receptor. this receptor allows insulin to bind and triggers a conformational change within the receptor subunits. insulin can be acting as a(n):
ligand
ligands
bind to and form a complex with biomolecules such as receptors. can include: substrates, activators, inhibitors, hormones, and neurotransmitters
which structure contains the hydrolytic enzymes needed to breakdown the protective surface of an egg cell?
acrosome
acrosome
is a membrane-bound structure found at the anterior end of most sperm cells. the acrosome contains hyaluronidase, which is a hydrolytic enzyme that causes the breakdown of the protective surfaces of the egg.
what biome contains lichens, low-growing shrubs, and mosses and is cold.
tundra
exons are
the DNA bases that are transcribed
introns are
DNA bases which can be found between exons, but are not translated.
in most mammalian cells, only 1% of the DNA sequence is copied into
mRNA
exons will code for
proteins
a dental student administers Novocain, a local anesthetic, to her patient. why would this prevent an action potential from occurring?
blockage of Na+ voltage gated channels.
the pattern before, during, and after an action potential:
- polarization: inside negative with respect to outside
- depolarization: inside now becomes positive
- repolarization: inside negative again
as the diameter of an axon increase, there is a
decrease in electrical resistance along its length
a self-propagating wave of depolarization down the axon is called an
action potential
as the diameter of a nerve fiber increases, we decrease
electrical resistance, hence speed incerases
the precursor to the prokaryotic cell is believed to be the
protobiont
protobionts are
metabolically active protein clusters
protobionts> prokaryotes> eukaryotes> amphibians > reptiles > primates
.
a circus lion learns to stand up on a chair and jump through a hoop to receive a tasty treat. this is an example of:
operant conditioning
operant conditioning
an animal learns to associate a voluntary activity with the consequences that follow. THINK REWARD OR REINFORCEMENT; reinforcement can be positive or negative
in classical or Pavlovian conditioning
we see a physical response to a stimulus from the environment.
imprinting
if an animal is exposed to a specific stimulus in its early development, it can form an association with that object
habituation
a repeated stimulus creates a decreased response. for example, a barking dog scared a child, over a period of time the child becomes less shared.
spermatogenesis and oogenesis in the vertebrate differ in that:
four functional spermatozoa are produced in spermatogenesis, whereas oogenesis produces one functional ovum
which organism lacks a notochord during its embryonic development?
earthworm (Porifera, Cnidarian, Platyhelminthes, Nematodes, and Annelids all lack notochord)
notochord is derived from cells of the
mesoderm
notochord is
a cartilaginous rod that extends from the head to the tail in the embryo of all chordates
nondisjunction causes errors in
chromosome number such as in trisomy 21
if nondisjunction occurs, one cell could get both chromosomes and the other cell
none
individuals with down syndrome are prone to leukemia and alzheimer’s disease.
.
during nondisjunction an egg or sperm cell may lack or have an additional
chromosome
which of the following is a plant-like protist?
volvox
a paramecium is
a unicelled protozoa
a mold is
a fungi that can release tiny spored into the air
an amoeba is
a single-celled protist that moved by pseudopodia
action potentials:
- as stimulus intensity increases, the number of action potentials increase
- as stimulus intensity increases, the amplitude and speed remain constant
- action potentials move faster along fibers that are thick
.
why does the drug, 3-azido-3-deoxythymidine or AZT, interfere with DNA replication?
the molecule lacks an OH group at C-3, thus no nucleophile is present to react with the 5’-triphosphate group of a growing polynucleotide chain
mandible
the strongest bone of the face
foramen magnum
skull cavity that allows passage of the spinal cord
TMJ joint
attaches the lower jaw to the upper jaw
foramen
a natural opening where vessels such as nerves may pass
which of the following characteristics can be applied to arthropods such as a crayfish?
- they have open circulatory systems
- they have chitinous exoskeletons
- they have body segmentation
- they have bilateral symmetry
prostate gland:
- the gland secretes a milky fluid with a pH>7
- it functions to neutralize the acidic seminal fluid
- it enhances sperm motility
- the prostatic fluid aids to neutralize the acidic vaginal secretion
.
ruminants:
- are mammals such as cow in which the stomach has an alkaline pH
- have a stomach that is divided into four interconnected sacs
- sheep, cows, and deer can digest cellulose
.
during inspiration:
- the lung becomes inflated
- the thoracic pressure decreases as the thoracic cavity size increases
- the diaphragm moves downward
- the phrenic nerves carry impulses to the diaphragm and allows contraction
/
constriction of an artery will
increase blood pressure
dilation of an artery will
decrease blood pressure
blood travels slowest in the
capillaries
veins often have valves that allow blood to flow only in one direction.
.
pulmonary veins carry
oxygenated blood.
histamine
is a vasodilator contained in basophils and mast cells
macrophages produce a cytokine called
Interleukin-1
helper T cells produce
Interleukin-2
interleukins can activate
cytotoxic cells, B cells, and other helper T cells
helper T cells
mobilize both humoral and cell-mediated branches of the immune system
a storm approaches a mountain and undergoes an orthographic lift in which all the rain is removed, as it leaves virtually no moisture on the other side of the mountain. the area without moisture is called a:
rain shadow
a species displays very little genetic or morphological change. however if this period of equilibrium is interrupted by environmental events, which result in a new species produced in a relatively short period of time, it is called:
punctuated equilibrium
which blood vessel contains the strongest and thickest wall?
artery
arteries are comprised of three layers (tunics)
endothelial lining, middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic tissue, and an outer layer of connective tissue
the development of individuals from unfertilized eggs is called
parthenogenesis; example male honeybees
sporangia are found in
ferns, angiosperms, gymnosperms, algae, fungi, and bryophytes
which fungal pathogen would most likely be involved in food spoilage?
rhizopus
in monocots, the stem vascular bundles are scattered.
.
in monocots, the leaves have parallel veins.
.
conifers are the oldest and largest trees of the world.
.
the gymnosperms were the first plants to have seeds.
.
evolutionary path: byrophytes > gymnosperms > angiosperms
.
consider the following metabolic pathway for the hypothetical synthesis of compound Q:
A-(1)->B-(2)->C-(3)->D-(4)->E-(5)->Q
the pathway is regulated by feedback inhibition.
Q is most likely the inhibitor, and step 1 is the most likely inhibited step
which organism contains a flagellum for locomotion and often has chloroplasts?
euglena
electrophoresis in the presence of the detergent called SDA will separate proteins on the basis of
mass.
after electrophoresis, the proteins can be seen when a dye such as ? is added
Coomassie Blue
consider the cell life cycle. which stage is normally the longest?
G1; organelles such as mitochondria are produced during this stage
a cytotoxic cell (killer T-cell):
- are involved in destroying cancer cells
- directly kill cells having antigen on their surface
- develops in the thymus gland and do not release antibodies
- use the protein perforin to lyse their targets
.
during the light reaction of photosynthesis electrons are transferred from water to ? and ? is produced
NADP+; ATP
light reaction:
- ATP is produced
- water is oxidized
- NADP+ is reduced
2NADP+ + ADP + Pi + 2H2O ->
O2 + 2NADPH + 2H+ + ATP
.
which hormone inhibits peristalsis and acid secretion by the stomach
enterogastrone
enterogastrone is released by the
duodenum
cholecystokinin cases
the gall bladder to contract; it is also made in teh duodenum
secretin signals the
pancreas to release bicarbonate (a buffer) which can neutralize the acidic chyme.
what is made in the duodenum?
secretin, cholecystokin, and enterogastrone
An organism has the following genotype: HhGgLLKk. how many different types of gametes could be produced?
n=heterozygotes
n=3
gametes formed = 2^n = 2^3= 8
chromatography separates proteins according to
size
insulin:
- a hormone that promote the entry of glucose and some amino acids into muscle and fat cells
- lowers the level of blood glucose
- derived from pro-insulin and preproinsulin
- act by binding to receptors located in the plasma membrane of target cells
.
hormones are intercellular messengers produced by
ductless glands
hormones can be
steroid or peptide derived
steroids may bind directly to receptors in the
nucleus
when a steroid binds to a nuclear receptor, we see an alteration of the rate in which specific genes are transcribed and translated into
proteins
which ion binds to troponin during muscle contraction
Ca++; causes it to change shape
angiosperms are the flowering plants and include
apple trees, corm, and roses
angiosperms produce ? and are characterized by ?
seeds; fruits
pine trees are
gymnosperms
ATP molecule:
- the hydrolysis of ATP is exergonic
- ATP hydrolysis releases energy that can be utilized to drive endergonic reactions
- at pH=7, ATP is negatively charged
- ATP is the universal carrier of free-energy in biochemical systems
.
which second messenger will activate Ca++ channels?
IP3
cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP will activate
protein kinases
NO will be involved in
relaxing smooth muscle.
cyclic AMP -> AMP is catalyzed by
phosphodiesterase
ATP -> cyclic AMP is catalyzed by
adenylate cyclase, and integral membrane protein
which features have allowed amphibians to successfully invade land?
lungs, legs, redesigned heart, and the ability to develop a means to prevent drying ofthe skin
amphibians are believed to have descended from
air-breathing lobe-fin fishes
ligand-gated channels are illustrated in
acetylcholine receptors
ligand-gated channels are controlled by a substance present in the extracellular fluid to the receptor. an excited neuron releases acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft. it is here on the postsynaptic neuron that acetylcholine interacts with acetylcholine receptor and triggers an impulse. binding causes a conformational change that opens the channel. the acetylcholine is the ligand. now, Na+ rush in, K+ move out; the Na+ influx depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, initiating an action potential. Voltage gated channels such as K+, Na+ are controlled by the voltage across the membrane due to concentration gradients of ions.
.
facultative anaerobic bacteria:
- include E.coli
- do not require O2, but grow better when it is present
- the human intestine may harbor facultative anaerobic bacteria
.
obligate anaerobic bacteria are killed by
O2.
any gene that has the potential to induce cancerous transformation is called a(n):
oncogene
prion
is a “protein infectious particle” that is composed of a protein that has adopted an abnormal conformation
Ozone, O3:
- is split by sunlight, but quickly reforms
- converts much of the harmful ultraviolet light into heat energy
.
reduction in the ozone layer by the use of fluorohydrocarbons would likely cause an increase in
cataracts and skin cancer
the early earth had very little free oxygen, a condition that favored the formation of life.
.
which behavioral pattern precede mating in most animals?
courtship behavior
in self-sacrificial behavior
members help other individuals survive and reproduce- at personal cost
appeasement behavior
allows dominant hierarchies to be maintained and will inhibit other animals from attacking.
agonistic behavior
may or may not result in physical combat
a sperm cell comes in contact with the jelly coat surrounding an egg cell known as the
zuna pellucida
the high motility of sperm is due to the abundant mitochondria located in the
midpiece of the sperm
the sperm cell has very little cytoplasm as compared to an egg cell.
.
the carrying capacity of a population is:
the number of individuals in a species that can be sustained by the available resources in a given area
phase contrast microscopy can be used to view
live cells; no staining is required
dark field microscopy views
live cells or flagella that are too think to be seen by phase contrast microscopy
electron scanning microscopy may be employed to view
microbial surfaces; cells are not alive
electron microscopes reveal many
organelles, but the chemical and physical methods employed kill the cells
following death, ATP production ceases along with other metabolic activities and biochemical pathways. in all skeletal muscles, cross-bridges remain locked in place. what term best applies?
rigor mortis
an increase in size of a tissue or organ is called
hypertrophy
a change from one cell type to another such as inflammanion or irritation is called
metaplasia
an increase in cell members
hyperplasia
a decrease in cell size
atrophy
almost complete failure of development
aplasia
glucose-6-phosphate -> fructose-6-phosphate. what enzyme catalyzes this reaction?
phosphoglucose isomerase
what represents strict anaerobes?
methanogens; they are poisoned by oxygen. they convert H2 and CO2 into methane.
methanogens can be found in
the gut of elephants, cow, and other ruminants
methanogens live in
swamps and marshes
specificity constant, K
- is the ratio between Kcat and Km:
- K=Kcat/Km.
- the larger the ratio, the more efficient the enzyme will be
a sperm cell and an egg cell unite to produce a zygote this process is called fertilization or:
syngamy
transformation
a change in phenotype due to the assimilation of external genetic material
DNA contains adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, transcribed in groups of three with possible base repetition. how many codons would be possible?
4^3=64 codons
how are dizygotic twins produced?
2 eggs: 2 sperm; or fraternal twins
monozygotic twins are produced from
the same zygote and as a result are genetically identical. (identical twins)
in plants and some bacteria, acetyl-CoA can serve as the starting compound for the biosynthesis of carbohydrates. what is the name of this reactive sequence?
glyoxylate cycle
the hexose monophosphate shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway, converts
glucose into five-carbon sugars and generates NADPH which is used in reductive biosynthesis of lipids.
joints:
junction between bones
ACL ligament:
- limits rotational knee movement
- connects femur and tibia
femur:
longest bone in the body
knee:
hinge joint which allows movement in one plane
ball and socket joints:
allow movements in all planes
ovules contain the
female gametophyte
the cell walls of fungi contain
chitin
gymnosperms produce seeds and have
pollen
yeasts are ? fungi
unicellular
pollen grains represent the
immature male gametophyte
sclera:
white portion of the eye
cornea:
allows light to enter the eye
retina:
inner layer of eye containing photoreceptors
iris:
colored portion of the eye
vitreous humor:
makes up most of the eye volume; made up of a jelly-like substance
which molecule participates in endocytosis by forming a polyhedral lattice around coated pits?
clathrin
spectrin
found in erythrocytes that enable them to resist strong shearing forces
which cell is involved in the synthesis of extracellular matrix and collagen?
fibroblast cells; the most common type of cell found in connective tissue
aorta:
vessel with the highest blood pressure
bradycardia:
slow heart rate
trachycardia:
abnormally fast heartbeat
coronary artery:
aortic branch that supplies blood to the heart
monometer:
measures gas pressures
sphygmomanometer:
measures blood pressure
what is the main form of calcium in the bone
calcium phosphate
cleavage begins while the zygote is still present in the fallopian tube.
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fertilization > morula > blastula > gastrula
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during ovulation, the follicle ruptures and releases a secondary oocyte.
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in hard-shelled eggs, the allantois stores waste from protein metabolism.
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in humans the allantois is involved in oxygen and nutrient transport and becomes part of the placenta. eventually, the allantois stalk becomes the umbilical cord.
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restriction emzymes
endonucleases that cut DNA at specific internal nucleotides
DNA ligase
used to seal DNA fragments together
vectors
vehicles that bring foreign DNS into a cell. i.e. plasmids and viruses
DNA polymerase
enzyme that builds new DNA molecules
primase
provides the primer (RNA sequence) that initiates DNA synthesis
action patterns (or stereotypes)
are behaviors that an animal always repeats. ex: beewolf wasps encircling its nest before it hunts.
DNA polymerase I
major repair enzyme in DNA repair
DNA polymerase II
specialized for DNA repair
DNA polymerase III
major enzyme involved in DNA replication, not repair.
