Biology Destroyer part 1 Flashcards
left lung
has 2 lobes; smaller than the right lung and has a cardiac notch to allow room for the heart and its vasculature
right lung
has 3 lobes; larger than the left lung
sensory or afferent neurons
carry nerve impulses from peripheral body parts into the brain or spinal cord; closely related with receptor cells located in the skin or sensory organs such as the eye or nose
motor neuron (efferent)
associated with muscles and glands
microarray technology
allows a researcher to examine many genes and determine which are expressed in a particular cell type. *this technique will allow you to determine gene expression.
microarray
a microscope slide containing thousands of individual genes place in discrete spots
DNA microarrays
can be used to detect DNA or RNA that may or may not be translated into proteins
monotreme
a mammal that lays eggs. ex: platypuses and echidnas (spiny anteaters)
marsupial
a mammal that completes embryonic development in a pouch. ex: kangaroo
chitin
a polysaccharide containing glucose molecules with nitrogen groups attached. it is actually a polymer of amino sugars. the cell walls of many fungi contain chitin.
sodium potassium pump
- an integral protein.
- actively pumps 3 Na+ out of a cell and 2 K+ into a cell against their gradients.
- uses ATP
- drugs such as Oubain and Digitalis stops the pump and Na+ will build up inside the cell
illeocecal valve
- is at the junction of the small and large intestine.
- will prevent the contents of the large intestine from entering the small intestine, and vice versa.
valves in the heart
semilunar and mitral valves
colchicine
- an alkaloid
- inhibits the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules
- mitosis would stop if colchicine is present
thyroid gland produces:
- calcitonin and iodine-containing hormones: thyroxine and triiodothyronine
thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones
influence growth, development and overall metabolic rates
ingestion of radioactive I-131 is a method employed to determine?
thyroid activity
blood enter the glomerulus via the ____ arteriole and leaves via the ____ arteriole.
afferent, efferent
if the efferent arteriole is constricted blood cannot flow passed the constricted point; this causes
an increase in the glomerular pressure as blood backs up into the glomerulus consequently the glomerular hydrostatic pressure is increases and the filtration rate rises.
if the afferent arteriole is constricted; blood flow is
diminished, hydrostatic pressure is decreased, and filtration decreases. sympathetic innervations of the kidneys primarily will affect the afferent arterioles and causes constriction and would reduce the urine output
steroid hormones
estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone.
bind to nuclear receptors
insulin will bind to
a cell-surface receptor
unique feature of angiosperms is
double fertilization of the egg nucleus and of the central nucleus. one sperm nucleus fertilizes the egg; we form a 2N zygote. the other sperm nucleus fertilizes the two haploid central nuclei forming a 3N endosperm nucleus, which is a nutritive tissue. the endosperm will provide nutrients to developing embryo
earthworm and salt
- the amount of salt is critical to an earthworm’s survival
- the skin of an earthworm secretes mucous which keeps the skin moist
- moist skin is needed for gas exchange, since earthworm have no respiratory organs
- salt can destroy the sensitive skin of the earthworm and cause death
glycolysis is the single metabolic pathway that will occur in all living cells.
.
indeterminate cleavage of a zygote will allow
a human twin to be produced. in this type of cleavage, each cell that is made retains its capacity to develop into a viable embryo
hepatic vein
- will allow blood to leave the liver.
- will empty into the inferior vena cava allowing blood to be returned to the general circulation
liver problems can prevent the normal removal of bile pigments via the
digestive tract.
if bile pigments such as bilirubin get into circulation, they can cuase
skin discoloration as seen in jaundice
autotrophs
- make their own food
- make organic molecules from inorganic raw materials which they get from the environment
- ex are plants; a plant is actually a photoautotroph, it uses light energy to make proteins, lipid, and carbohydrates
papillae
rough projections on the tongue surface that provides friction for handling food and contain taste buds
papillary muscle
cone-shaped muscles located in the heart
photoreceptors of the retina of the eye contain
rod and cone cells
rods
enable us to see at night, in black and white
cones
respond to bright light and can distinguish colors in daylight
ciliary muscle of the eye is involved with
changing lens shape
echinoderms include
invertebrates as starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. there creatures lack segmentation seen in annelids, and the adults display radial symmetry
convergent evolution
displayed when two distinct species with differing ancestries evolve to yield similar physical features. ex: humming bird and sunbird
plutipotent stem cell arises in early embryo and gives rise to
erythrocytes, platelets, and a potential line of white blood cells
thrombus
a blood clot; may cause a heart attack or stroke
the kidney may produce ___ in the tissues that are not receiving enough oxygen; red blood cell production in the bone marrow is stimulated
erythropoietin
erythrocytes vs leukocytes (which is most abundant)
erythrocytes
during an injury, the release of ___ will cause vasodilation, and will allow ___ to squeeze out of the capillaries
during an injury, the release of histamine will cause vasodilation, and will allow white blood cells to squeeze out of the capillaries
myeloma cell
a cancer cell with the ability for indefinite growth
hybridoma
- a lymphocyte fused with a modified myeloma cell.
- hybridoma cells can produce the desired antibody
prostagladins
modified fatty acids which help induce fever, pain sensation, and inflammation
what may inhibit prostagladin activity?
aspirin
dual function of pancreas:
- the exocrine tissue produces lipases, amylases and proteases, and exports them to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct.
- the endocrine function is to produce hormones such as insulin and glucagno
norepinephrine may act with epinephrine to
increase glycogen breakdown and allow glucose release into the bloodstream
norepinephrine can also as a
neurotransmitter
the adrenal glands make hormones such as
epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol and aldosterone
ecdysone
a hormone that is involved in insect molting and metamorphosis
first trimester
is the main period in which organs develop. because of rapid development, the embryo is most sensitive to drugs and radiation which can cause birth defects
the embryo is called a fetus at
about 8 weeks
during the second trimester
the fetus is very active and the uterus will grow enough for pregnancy to be noticeable
helicases
are motor proteins that can help in unwinding nucleic acid strands using energy from ATP
endonucleases
have the ability to cut DNA only at a particular sequence of nucleotides
DNA ligase
is involved in repairing discontinuities in DNA
dehydrogenases
are involved in redox reactions
a bacterium can start a process called endosporulation, whereby
an endospore is produced.
endospores
are resistant to extremes of temperature, chemicals, toxins, detergents, as well as radiation.
the cell wall of bacteria is made up of
peptidoglycan
the plant cell wall is made of
cellulose
lymph nodes contain
B cells, T-cells, and macrophages
large macrophages contain
fibril-like pseudopodia that can attach to a bacterium
macrophages
are the largest phagocytic cells and will phagocytize bacteria
fixed macrophages are very numerous in lymphatic organs such as the
spleen and lymph nodes
neutrophils have an average life span of
a few days and tend to self-destruct as foreign invaders are destroyed.
neutrophils make up about __ % of white blood cells
60%
analogous structures
- share no common ancestor but perform similar function
- evolved independently and are built from different structures
- ex: insect wings and those of birds
fixed-action patterns
- patterns that are not learned
- a specific environmental stimulus triggers a complex, coordinated behavioral response
- ex: reflexes
blood is composed of:
white blood cells, red blood cells, platelets, and plasma
white blood cells include:
neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, and eosinophils.
neutrophils make up 60%, while the lymphocytes make up 30% of the white blood cells
lymph
a tissue fluid that contains water, protein, salts, sugar and urea
lymphatic system
- returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood
- absorbs fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive system and transports them to the venous circulation
- provides a defense against micro-organisms; lymph nodes filter the lymph to remove foreign invaders, lymphatic organs such as the spleen contain lymphocytes that destroy these invaders
in the center of the villi, we see
lacteals, these small capillaries absorb the fats and fat-soluble vitamins
at the base of the neck, the lymph enters the
subclavian veins and becomes plasma in the blood
a cascade is
a series of amplifying steps.
ex: epinephrine can bind to a receptor and cause a cascade which ultimately leads to glycogen breakdown. glucagon can also cause a cascade upon binding to a receptor. nerve growth factors are proteins that also regulate cell behavior by binding with receptors that can cause a biochemical cascade
programmed cell death
or apoptosis, can help sculpt hands and feet as well as eyes during embryonic development. the cells between these structures die and separation occurs.
second law of thermodynamics:
in most energy systems, energy is partly converted to heat. there is an unstoppable move in the direction of disorder
catabolism
refers to the breakdown of nutrients to provide energy
anabolism
is the synthesis of biomolecules from simpler compounds
adenylyl cyclase is inactive until
epinephrine binds to receptor protein.
the cyclic AMP functions as a
second messenger
Darwinian fitness refers to
the contribution that an individual will make to the gene pool of the next generation. the greater the number of fertile offspring, the more likely Darwinian fitness can be measured
endotherms
animals such as birds, mammals, some fish, and even certain insects use metabolic energy to maintain a constant body temperature
ectotherm
warms its body mainly by heat absorption from the surroundings. many invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles are ectotherms
parts/segments to organs or limbs:
small intestine:
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
vertebral column:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx
upper limbs:
humerus, radius, ulna, carpal, metacarpal
lower limbs:
femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsal, metatarsal
freshwater fish
- live in a hypo-osmotic environment
- tend to take in a great deal of water and lose much salt
- they compensate by rarely drinking, and actively absorbing salts through cells located in their gills
- excrete a great deal of dilute urine
saltwater (marine) fish
- live in hyperosmotic environment
- lose water
- constantly drinking and actively excreting salt across their gills
micovilli
microscopic “hairs”that cover the small intestine and increase the surface area and aids in food absorption
to study nucleic acid metabolism a researcher would use ___
a radioisotope such as 32-P.
in animals and many frogs, yolk is most concentrated in the ___ pole, and least concentrated in the ___ pole.
in animals and many frogs, yolk is most concentrated in the vegetal pole, and least concentrated in the animal pole.
when some ectodermal cells elongate, ___ is formed
the neural plate
the folding of the neural plate gives rise to the ___ tube that will become the ___ and ___.
the folding of the neural plate gives rise to the neural tube that will become the brain and spinal cord.
the Gray crescent will establish the body axis, and is an area located on the..
side of the egg opposite the sperm penetration
cleavage is
a series of mitotic cell divisions that follow fertilization
somites
- are segmented blocks of tissue that form on either side of the notochord
- go on to produce the vertebrae of the backbone, but also muscles of the axial skeleton
gymnosperms include
spruce, pine, and fir trees
angiosperms include
fruits, flowering plants, maple, oaks, and grass
angiosperms are divided into
monocots and dicots
monocots
generally have parallel veins
dicots
have leaves with netlike veins
land plants exhibit an alternation of generations in which the
gametophyte (haploid multi-celled stage) alternates with a diploid multi-celled stage, the sporophyte
locus
(plural, loci) is a gene specific location along a length of chromosome
bacteria are prokaryotes that reproduce by
binary fission
surface appendages called ___, allow bacteria to adhere to one another or even to a mucous membrane.
pili (singular, pilus). Ex: Neisseria gonorrhea uses pili to attach to mucous membranes of its host. some pili hold bacteria together to allow DNA transfer during conjugation
pyruvate is gaining hydrogens, thus is ___. since pyruvate is ___, NADH is ___. ___ is formed with lactate, and is needed for glycolysis. The involved enzyme is a dehydrogenase, name ___ dehydrogenase.
pyruvate is gaining hydrogens, thus is reduced. since pyruvate is reduced, NADH is oxidized. NAD+ is formed with lactate, and is needed for glycolysis. The involved enzyme is a dehydrogenase, name lactate dehydrogenase.
the opening of the archenteron that can develop into the mouth or anus is called the
blastopore
temperature strongly affects ponds and lakes in north temperate areas. During the summer, warm water is at the ___ and is well aerated because of oxygen production by plants and mixing by the wind. The ___ will be high in nutrients. In the spring and autumn, oxygenated water from ___ goes to the ___ and nutrients from the ___ go to the ___. This process is known as a ___, and is vital for the survival and growth of organisms at all levels.
temperature strongly affects ponds and lakes in north temperate areas. During the summer, warm water is at the surface and is well aerated because of oxygen production by plants and mixing by the wind. The bottom layer will be high in nutrients. In the spring and autumn, oxygenated water from surface goes to the bottom and nutrients from the bottom go to the top. This process is known as a turnover, and is vital for the survival and growth of organisms at all levels.
somatostatin suppresses
the release of gastrointestinal hormones. this suppression will decrease the rate of gastric emptying along with reducing blood flow within the intestines.
gastrointestinal hormoms include:
gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin
the menstrual cycle consists of three phases:
menstrual flow phase, proliferative phase, and secretory phase.
menstruation will being with the
disintegration of the endometrium (the inner lining of the uterus)
the endometrium thickens in response to
estrogen levels during the proliferative phase and vascularization occurs.
during the secretory phase,
the endometrium continues to thicken, arteries enlarge, and glands grow in response to progesterone estrogens
if pregnancy does occur,
estrogens and progesterone levels remain high to prevent disintegration of the endometrium
plants produce gametes within structures called
gametangia
eggs are found in the
archegonia
the eggs are fertilized in
the female gametangia
the male gametangia are located in the
antheridia and represent the sperm-producing structures.
motile sperm swim from the ___ to the ___ for fertilization
motile sperm swim from the antheridia to the archegonia for fertilization
the two main branches of the immune system include:
the humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity
humoral immunity
acts against pathogens such as free viruses and bacteria and is based on circulation of antibodies
cell-meditated immunity
works against pathogens that have entered body cells by use of T-cells
cells primarily involved in diapedesis:
neutrophils, leukocytes, and cytokines. neutrophils the first cell type to arrive
chemicals that are released by the injured tissue cells are?
prostagladins and histamine; this causes vasodilation and an increase in capillary permeability
detritivores
organisms that consume dead or decaying organic matter (detritus). include: earthworms, slugs, millipedes, woodlice, and crabs. These organisms are decomposers
type O blood
is the universal donor
type AB blood
is the universal recipient
agglutination
of clumping of the red blood cells. mixing of different blood types
south of the tundra lies the
coniferous forest or taiga; the vegetation is dominated by spruce, fir, and pine trees. the climate is characterized by cool summers and cold winters
the temperate deciduous forest has
large trees such as seen in North Carolina
chaparral is dominated by
dense, spiny shrubs
multiple allele system
if more than two forms of alleles exist for a gene locus; ex: four blood types are possible A,B,AB, and O. therefore, the ABO blood groups exemplify multiple alleles
ribosomes are made in the
nucleolus
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is involved in
lipid synthesis and drug detoxification
desmosomes
- occur within all types of animal tissues
- abundant in the skin and randomly arranged on the lateral sides of plasma membranes
- allow cells to become joined into strong epithelial sheets
upon stressing a bone, bone forming cells called osteoblasts deposit collagen and release calcium phosphate to strengthen the bone. the mineral hydroxyapetite is produced
.
the first step in urine formation is the
filtration of substances through the glomerular membrane into Bowman’s capsule
Edward syndrome
a trisomy of chromosome 18
Down syndrome
a trisomy of chromosome 21. due to nondisjunction; the failure of the chromosomes to separate
Klinefelter syndrome
a trisomy of the sex chromosomes
Turner syndrome
a monosomy having on XO
human autosomes and sex chromosomes can be precisely examined at ___ that is when they are most condensed.
metaphase
karyotyping allows for a very accurate diagnostic tool for congenital disorders such as a Down syndrome.
.
nonsteroid hormones (H2O soluble) are made from
amino acids; ex: norepinephrine and epinephrine
steroid hormones (lipid soluble) are derived from
cholesterol
lumen
a space inside a tube
sphincters
rings of muscle in the wall of the esophagus, stomach, and other specialized regions.
submucose
is a connective tissue with blood and lymph vessels along with nerve plexuses
prokaryotes lack organelles such as
mitochondria, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus and lysosomes
salivary and pancreatic amylase break down
carbohydrates
angiosperms are the
flowering plants; they are divided into monocots (narrow leaves, such as grass) and dicots (broad leaves i.e. shrubs)
the undifferentiated cambium tissue develops into
phloem and xylem (vascular tissue)
xylem
transports H2O and minerals up the stem
phloem
transports nutrients down the stem
non-tracheophytes
plants lacking vascular tissues; these include simple plants
gymnosperms do not have
flowers; i.e. Red wood, pine, juniper tree (a fruit is the ripened ovary of a flower).
stomata conrol
gas exchange by opening and closing
the chloroplast contains an
inner and outer membrane
the inner membrane contains a fluid called
stroma
a series of stacked disks are present, each disk is a
thylakoid, which contains the photosynthetic pigment
meristem is found in
higher plants and represents undifferentiated cell types
apical meristem contains
cells that produce branches and flowers
a nucleoside consists of
a sugar and a base
a nucleotide is composed of
a sugar, base, and a phosphate group
kinases transfer
phosphoryl groups
a phosphatase catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of a
phosphate ester bond
a lyase catalyzes the cleavage of
C-C, C-O, and C-N bonds by elimination; a double bond is formed
a dehydrogenase is involved in an
oxidation-reduction reaction
hemoglobin contains more than one binding state therefore it is ___; it can bind:
allosteric. it can bind O2, CO2, CO, and H+
a low pH causes Hb to unload
O2, as does a high CO2 level
Hb is a tetramer consisting of
two alpha chains and two beta chaings
the non-protein portion of Hb is called
heme (prosthetic group)
yellow bone marrow functions as
fat storage
in spongy bone, we see red marrow that functions in the formation of
red blood cells, certain white blood cells, and platelets (throbocytes)
if blood cell supply is low, it is possible that yellow bone marrow changes into
red bone marrow
platelets arise from large, multinucleated cells in the red marrow called
Megakaryocytes
gibberellins are
plant hormones that may induce certain plants to flower as well as allow stem elongation
ethylene stimulates
fruit ripening
abscisic acid is
an inhibitor of plant growth hormones
cytokinins are
plant hormones involved with promoting cell division
microbodies (peroxisomes) convert
H2O2 into H2O + O2.
collagen consists of
a triple helix
in Gluconeogenesis,
non-carbohydrates such as fats and amino acids are made into glucose; this occurs mainly in the cytosol
centrioles are found only in
animal cells and are involved in cell division
sister chromatid separation is in
anaphase
the nucleolus reappears in
telophase
cytokinesis
when the cytoplasm separates, is in late anaphase or early telophase
during prophase,
chromatids shorten and thicken, nucleoli disappears, spindle fibers form, and centrioles in animal cells move to opposite ends
p+q=1
p=dominant allele frequency
q=recessive allele frequency
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
2pq=frequency of heterozygous individual
p^2=frequency of homozygous dominants in a population
q^2=frequency of homozygous recessive
p^2+2pq=dominant phenotype
prokaryotes reproduce by
binary fission
blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are prokaryotes found in the kingdom
monera
in a lichen, a cyanobacteria provides organic nutrients for the fungus, thus they live
symbiotically together (the fungus offers protection).
circular DNA molecules that exist in bacterial cells are called
plasmids
multiple DNA copies can be made by the
PCR technique, developed by Kary Mullis
the most accurate way to work out molecular structures is by
X-ray diffraction
peripheral proteins are usually bound to the charged polar head group of the bilayer. mild treatments with ___ can remove them.
salts
what is needed to remove the integral proteins?
detergents, organic solvents, and ultrasonic vibrations
the cell wall is made up of
peptidoglycan
peptidoglycan is composed of
polysaccharide and polypeptide chains
gram positive bacteria have a
thick peptidoglycan layer and appear purple after gram staining.
the thin peptidoglycan layer of bacteria causes most of the gram stain to be
washed off
teichoic acids are used as
recognition and binding sites by bacterial viruses that causes infection
myelin is made by
schwann cells
myelin acts as an
electrical insulator; it increases the rate in which the axon can translate signals
gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the
cytosol
the nerve signal is:
presynaptic cell -> synaptic cleft -> postsynaptic cell
the middle ear contains the three bones:
incus, malleus, and stapes
the inner ear contains:
the semicircular canals responsible for balance and the snail-like structure called the cochlea, where sound waves in the air are converted into neural messages
the hormones of the anterior pituitary gland include:
HGH, LH, FSH, TSH, and Prolactin
the posterior pituitary gland only stores
ADH (vasopressin) and oxytocin, both are made in the hypothalamus
the adrenal cortex makes
aldosterone and cortisol
the adrenal medulla makes
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
glucagon is made by the
pancreatic alpha cells
insulin is made by the
beta cells
glucagon and cortisol raise
glucose levels in the blood
insulin lowers
glucose levels
aldosterone is involved in
Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion in the kidneys collecting duct, as well as a rise in blood pressure and blood volume
fungi
- are eukaryotic heterotrophs
- they secrete digestive enzymes and then absorb the soluble products of digestion
- composed of filaments called hyphae; collectively the hyphae are called mycelium
- can reproduce sexually or asexually
- haploid state predominates, but they do alternate between haploid and diploid stages
- saprophytic, they break down the remains of living organisms that have died
- immotile and have cell walls
- a fungus not only attacks dead matter, but may attack living tissue such as in athletes foot
- more similar to human cells than bacterial cell
habitat
the physical environment in which the organism lives
niche
the role that an organism plays in its natural community, the way that the organism lives, eats and reproduces
community
the interacting of different populations of species
population
a group of individuals belonging to the same species that interbreed white occupying a given area at a given time
biome
a geographic region inhabited by a distinct community. include the tundra, taiga, tropical rain forests, savanna, deserts, grasslands and temperate deciduous forests
tundra
dominated by moss, lichen, low-growing shrubs, cold winters and short growing season
taiga
a coniferous forest with spruce, fir, and pine trees
types of symbiosis
parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
parasitism
one organism benefits while the other is harmed
mutualism
when both organisms benefit
commensalism
one organism benefits while the other in unharmed
saprophytes
the decomposers that get energy from dead organisms or decaying matter
food chain
(bottom of the pyramid) producers -> primary consumers -> secondary consumers -> tertiary consumers (top of the pyramid)
producers
plants
primary consumers
herbivores (shrimp)
secondary consumers
carnivores (mud crab)
tertiary consumers
top carnivores (striped bass)
arthropods make up the largest
animal phylum
examples of arthropods
spiders, insects, crabs, and lobsters; they have jointed legs, exoskeletons, open circulatory systems, bilateral symmetry
insects
have a head, thorax, and abdomen. the spiracles and tracheal tubes comprise their respiratory system
annelids
have true coeloms (body cavity), closed circulatory system, and includes earthworm. nephridia (excretory structures) and ganglia (cluster of nerve cell bodies) are present.
apoptosis
is programmed cell death
morula
a solid ball of cells
blastula
hollow ball of cells formed by morula cells that divided mitotically
the blastula becomes the
gastrula
ectoderm
hair, eyes, teeth, skin, nervous system, lens of the eye
endoderm
lining of bladder, digestive and respiratory tracts, liver, pancreas, gall bladder
mesoderm
skeleton, muscles, gonads, kidney, and circulatory system
cells of the stomach:
chief, parietal, G, and mucous cells
chief cells
secrete pepsinogen
parietal cells
secrete HCl, intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)
G-cells
secrete the hormone gastrin which stimulate HCl production of parietal cells
mucous cells
secrete mucous that lubricates the stomach and protects the stomach from HCl produced
teeth are derived from
ectoderm
starfish are from phylum __ ? and display
Echinodermata; radial symmetry
coelenterates
- include jellyfish, sea anemones, hydra
- radially symmetrical
- have a single opening
- mouth used for transport and digestive purposes
- are carnivores
- have tentacles to capture prey
- contain stinging cells called nematocysts
nematocysts
stinging cells in tentacles
collagen
- a fibrous protein that makes up bone and connective tissue
- the most abundant protein in vertebrates
- the structure is a triple helix along with hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine
- every third position is occupied by the amino acid glycine
in scurvy
(bleeding gums) we see the amino acid proline not being hydroxylated to hydroxyproline
osteoblasts
- secrete collagen
- build bone
- do not carry out mitosis
osteoclasts
- break down bone
- cannot carry out mitosis
PTH (parathyroid hormone) will stimulate
osteoclastic activity
calcitonin tones down the
blood calcium level by decreasing osteoclastic activity
cardiac muscle
single nucleus, has striations as well as complex junctions between adjacent individual cells called intercalated discs, it is involuntary
skeleton muscle
multinucleated, voluntary, and striated. normally does not undergo mitosis, contains thick myosin protein filaments that slide past the thin actin protein filaments
smooth muscle
single nucleated, found in walls of urinary bladder, digestive system, uterus, blood vessels, involuntary, non-striated, actin and myosin are present, but not organized into sarcomeres like seen in skeletal muscle
epinephrine will:
- increase blood glucose, blood flow to skeletal muscle
- increase heart rate, respiratory rate
- increase rate of glycogenolysis
- will constrict blood vessels to decrease blood supply to digestive tract and kidneys
- dilation of pupils
- increase blood flow to brain and blood pressure
slow block to polyspermy
cortical reaction. a sperm-proof fertilization membrane is formed when the cortical granules in the egg fuse with the plasma membrane. as enzymes are released, biochemical reactions harden the vitelline layer and allow no further sperm from entering
acrosomal reaction is the fast block
in which an electrical response occurs to change the membrane potential to prevent polyspermy
xylem contains two types of cells
tracheids and vessel members
xylem
conducts water and dissolved mineral absorbed from the soil, and mechanically supports the plant
the yearly xylem deposits make up the
annual growth rings used to record the age of a plant
phloem is another vascular tissue consisting of
sieve tubes through which sugars and other solutes are conducted
plants require __ to grow
N2.
atmospheric N2 is converted into
NH4+ or NO3- to be utilized by plants
nitrogen fixing bacteria are located in
root “swellings” called nodules
plants that contribute to nitrogen fixing include
the legume family
examples of legume family
peas, peanut, soybeans, and beans
nitrogen fixation
N2 from the atmosphere is converted to NH3
“fight or flight” response
is elicited by the sympathetic nervous system in response to stressful situations
hormones that belong to a class of compounds called catecholamines
epinephrine and norepinephrine
reverse transcriptase
an enzyme seen in retroviruses in which RNA is the genetic material
DNA is made from RNA and incorporated into
the host cell
sometimes the host cell is not lysed, but the virus reproduces in synchrony with the host cell and becomes a
prophage and lies dormant
the virus is said to be in a lysogenic phase, but could become active if exposed to harsh environment factors such as
ultraviolet radiation, stress, or chemicals
in adaptive radiation,
we see a number of different species emerge from a single ancestor. the finches on the galapagos islands are an example
divergent evolution
a number of different species emerge from a single ancestor
Hardy-Weinberg law shows…
examines. .
assuming. .
-Hardy-Weinberg law shows us how phenotype and genotype stability can be achieved in a population.
- this law examines population gene pools, not genotypes of individuals.
- assumptions:
large population
random mating
no net migration
no mutation
no natural selection
no change in the gene pool of a population
chromosomal breakage may cause
deletions or duplications. due to viruses, chemicals, and radiation.
during an inversion, a chromosomal segment is turned
180 degrees
a translocation results when
two nonhomologous chromosomes interchange genes, we see the attachment of all or part of one chromosome to another
it takes 3 codons to make
1 amino acid
transcription occurs in the
nucleus
the formation of mRNA required the enzyme
RNA polymerase
A=T has
two hydrogen bonds
C(triple bond)G has
three hydrogen bonds
the higher the percentage of CG, the more stable the
DNA sample will be and higher will its melting point be
the semen contains
sperm cells plus glandular secretions from the prostate gland and seminal vesicles
the vas deferens transports
the sperm to the urethra then out the penis
the Cowper’s (bulbourethral) glands ass more thick
mucous material to the semen
spermatozoa are matured in the coiled tube called the
epididymis
sperm productions (spematogenesis) occurs in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes
leydig cells secrete
testosterone that allows germ cells to mature into sperm cells
enzymes
are globular proteins that will love the energy of activation
feedback inhibition is used to
regulate metabolic pathway. and allows for an entire reaction series to be shut down
the corupus luteum breaks down into ____ if no fertilization occurs
corpus albicans
LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce
progesterone and estrogen which allow for blood vessels to grow and for the uterine linging to prepare for implantation of the egg
if LH was to decrease, as in the case of no fertilization,
progesterone levels fall, which cause the uterine wall tissue to break down and menstruation begins
lysosome have an
acidic pH; where the enzymes of cellular digestion are found
golgi apparatus
are membrane-bound sacs involved in the packaging of glycoproteins
oocyte development is halted at the
primary oocyte stage until puberty (meiosis is arrested in Prophase I)
where does the DNA transfer of a virus happen?
during transduction
SA node
- “pacemake” is a small tissue mass located at the entrance to the right atrium.
- delivers electrical impulses at regular intervals that allow the heart to beat
- this electrical excitation causes the atria to contract, thus pushing blood into the ventricles
the amphioxus is a(n)
invertebrate. *the amphioxus and tunicates are commonly asked questions. they represent chordates that are not vertebrates; they do not lose their notochord
chordates
have a notochord at least some time during development
both superior and inferior vena cava carry deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower extremities respectively to the
right atria
molecular chaperones prevent
aggregation of newly formed proteins until they can properly fold
cholecystokinin
is a hormone made by cells of the duodenum (first part of the small intestine) that stimulates the production of pancreatic juice, especially the bicarbonate portion.
gastrin
is made in the stomach. this hormone stimulates HCl secretion
enterogastrone
is made in the duodenum, and when fatty food is in the intestine, it inhibits stomach gland secretion and slows the stomach’s muscular movement. by slowing the stomach’s emptying, more time is allowed for meals that contain fat to digest
chemoreceptors
- are specialized structures located in the walls of major arteries
- they detect changes in H+, O2, and CO2.
breathing rate
- greatly sensitive to blood CO2 and H+ ion concentration
- a small increase in either H+ or CO2 will cause an increase in breathing rate
- a high blood O2 partial pressure would decrease breathing rate
the pulmonary vein and the umbilical vein, unlike other veins carry
oxygenated blood
blood can bypass the liver due to the
ductus venosus
most blood in the right atria is partly oxygenated and can bypass the pulmonary circulation by entering the left atria directly from the right atria by the
foramen ovale; this shunt will divert blood away from the pulmonary arteries
the ductus arteriosus conducts
some blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta, this bypassing the lungs
two main parts of the autonomic nervous system:
sympathetic and parasympathetic
when stimulated, the sympathetic nervous system allows you to respond to
stress, i.e. increased heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, decrease in blood flow to the kidneys and digestive organs
the parasympathetic systems allows what to occur:
digestion and elimination
the cerebellum is the part of the brain involved with
muscle coordination, balance, and equilibrium
the corpus callosum
- divides the brain hemispheres
- one of the largest myelinated tracts
- allows the right and left-brain portions to communicate
the central nervous system consists of
the brain and spinal cord
the peripheral nervous system is
all of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous system. it includes nerves and ganglia
two parts of the peripheral nervous system include:
the somatic nervous system (motor and sensory neurons) and autonomic nervous system
during the light reaction, a high [H+] is produced within the
thylakoids
the light requiring reactions of photosynthesis produce
NADPH, and build a high concentration of H+ ions, which are used to make ATP
in the dark reaction, which occurs in the
stroma of the chloroplasts, ATP and NADPH are both used in the “fixation” of carbon
during carbon fixation,
CO2 is incorporated into carbohydrate molecules
the calvin cycle (dark reaction) requires
2 ATP and 2 NADPH for each CO2 molecule incorporated into carbohydrate
the production of ribulose biphosphate requires
1 ATP
a total of ? ATP and ? NADPH are used for each CO2 molecule that becomes carbohydrate
3 ATP 2 NADPH
O2 is a _ of the light reaction
by-product
PGAL is made during the dark reaction from
CO2 and ribulose
? turns of the calvin cycle are needed to produce a glucose molecule
6
the axial skeleton includes:
the skull, vertebra, and ribs
the appendicular skeleton include:
the bones of the arms and legs as well as the boned of the pelvis and pectorial girdle
ligaments connect
bone to bone
tendons connect
bone to muscle
at the end of long bones, are regions of cartilaginous cells where growth occurs, this is called the
epiphyseal plate
compact bone contains structural units called
haversian systems. blood vessels and nerves pass through the haversian canals
Class Gastropoda is the largest
- Molluscan class
- here we find slugs and snail.
- a single shell is the characteristic of this class
Class Crustacean includes
crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles
Class Arachnida includes
spiders, ticks, scorpions and mites
Class Cephalopoda includes
octopus and squid
liver
- albumin synthesis
- bile production
- destruction of worn-out old red blood cells
- converts nitrogenous waste into urea
- stores glycogen
insulin
hormone secreted by the pancreatic beta cells. decreases blood glucose levels and allow it to be converted to glycogen, where it is stored in the liver and skeletal muscle
analogous structures illustrate
convergent evolution
convergent evolution
two unrelated species have close resemblances; i.e. cacti and euphorbs
transpiration
H2O loss by evaporation from leaves
hydrolysis
involves the use of H2O to split a molecule
hydration
is the addition of H2O
translocation
is the attachment of all or a portion of one chromosome to another
diapause
is a resting condition in the life of an insect
if you do not have enough ADH (vasopressin) you would lose H2O, large quantities of urine would be produced. this is seen in
diabetes insipidus
if sugar was in the urine this is characteristic of
diabetes mellitus
path urine takes:
loop of henle -> distal convoluted tubule -> collecting duct
the proximal convoluted tubule is where most
resorption occus
the glomerulus is involved with
blood filtration; it is a capillary bed lying in the bowman’s capsule
fluid from the blood is filtered through the glomerulus in a process called
glomerular filtration
the glomerular filtrate lacks
blood cells and proteins
the driving force for this filtration is the
blood pressure [hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus]
the distal convoluted tubule is the main area where
secretion occurs (K+, H+ by active transport and NH3 by diffusion)
H+ secretion regulates
blood pH
urine leaves the kidney by way of the
ureters
from the kidney, the ureters carry the urine to the
urinary bladder; urine is stored here until voided through the single urethra
DNA->mRNA is called
transcription and occurs in the nucleus
RNA does not contain
thymine
synthesis of mRNA is done by
RNA polymerase
the polymerase synthesis is in the
5’->3’ direction. original was 5’-CCGAAT-3’ the mRNA is 5’-AUUCGG-3’
PKU disease
- high amount of the amino acid phenylalanine in the blood
- mental retardation can result if left untreated
- individuals with PKU disease are homozygous recessive and they lack the needed enzyme for phenylalanine metabolism
the ectoderm gives rise to
the lens of the eye
muscle cells
- can find the sarcoplasmic reticulum
- calcium reservoir
acetylcholine triggers
an action potential that passes along the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Ca2+ ions are released from the terminal cisternae and allow for
filament sliding
RBC lacks
mitochondria, thus there is no TCA cycle
the RBC derives it energy from glycolysis:
- anaerobic respiration occurring in the cytosol
- the electron transport chain is contained within the inner membrane of the mitochondria
as we increase the degree of unsaturation
(i.e. increase the fatty acids with a double bond in their structure) fluidity increases and melting point decreases
in a warmer environment, the organism would want to increase its % of
saturated fatty acids
as we increase the degree of saturation
we increase melting pint, but decrease fluidity
prokaryotes lack _ in their cell membranes, unlike the eukaryotes
cholesterol
fertilization occurs in the
fallopian tube (oviduct)
fraternal twins develop from
two eggs which were fertilized independently of each other
the head of a sperm consists largely of
a nucleus
the blastula is a
hollow ball of cells
the trophoblast consists of
a double layer of cells and will be the precursor of the placenta
the retina of the eye contains visual
purple [Rhodopsin], a light sensitive pigment
breathing is controlled by
the medullar
as CO2 levels increase, the medullar send impulses to the
diaphragm and chest muscles, which will increase breathing rate
function of the cerebellum
balance and muscle coordination
balance is associated with the
semi-circular canals located within the iner ear
saltatory conduction
is when the impulse jumps from node to node; this increases velocity several fold
myelinated nerve fibers allow nerve transmission much faster than
unmyelinated
each villus of the small intestine contains a capillary network and a lacteal that absorb
nutrients
nutrients are carried into the
bloodstream
nutrient rich blood is conveyed through the hepatic portal vessel to the
liver which will regulate the blood nutrient content
the hepatic portal vessel has first “access” to nutrients that have been consumed by a person after a meal.
.
as glucose-rich blood passes through the liver; excess glucose it removed and stored in the liver as
glycogen
the liver will remove excess glucose and amino acids from the blood to prevent
tissue damage
blood will leave the liver and be transported to the heart, which then pumps blood to the rest of the body.
.
villi->?->?->?->body
villi->bloodstream->liver->heart->body
anaerobic pathways refer to
glycolysis, which is in both species
the cells of the ascending loop are ? to water
impermeable
as the urine descends the loop of henle, it becomes more and more concentrated and becomes less concentrated in the
ascending branch
fish: ? chambered tubular heart
2 chambered tubular heart
frog: ? chambered heart
3 chambered heart
artery: has no
valves
pulmonary vein: ? blood
oxygenated blood
which organelle(s) may have originated as a symbiotic prokaryote?
mitochondria and chloroplast
lacteals
small lymph vessels within the villi that absorb digested fatty acids
bile
an emulsifying agent that is made by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. it will emulsify fats and it contains sodium bicarbonate that helps neutralize the stomach acid (along with the pancreatic juice)
example of sexual dimorphism
male baboons and female baboons are very different in appearance
neutrophils are phagocytic cells
.
monocytes
large cells that develop into the macrophages
B-cells
develop in the fetal liver and spleen and produce antibodies that are in the blood and lymph
T-cells
are involved in immune reactions and develop in the thymus
homologous structures
similar structures which may be different in function
example of a vestigial organ
the appendix
a duck is hatched, and follows the first moving object. this is an example of
imprinting
a Barr body is
an inactivated X-chromosome
hemizygous
means having only one single copy of a gene instead of two. the male has XY sex-chromosomes and is said to be hemizygous
chromatids
longitudinal halves of a chromosome (2 per chromosome)
centromere
the constriction nearest the center is the area of attachment
a somatic cell during late interphase has been observed to have 10 chromosomes. how many chromatids is this?
20
Class chondrichthys:
skates and sharks
Class Amphibia:
toads and frogs
Class Aves:
birds
Class Reptilia:
lizards, turtles, and snakes
Class Osteichthys:
bony fish
Class Agnatha:
hagfish and lamprey
random changes in the allele frequency from one generation to another in small populations can lead to elimination of a particular allele by chance alone. This is called
genetic drift
adaptive radiation was observed with
Darwin’s finches, 14 species of birds were derived from a single species
autosomal recessive inheritance
- malenabd female equally affected
- if both parents have the trait, all offspring will be affected
- heterozygotes do not have trait
- children that have the trait can have parents that do not
a scientist wants to quickly “clone” a piece of DNA in vitro. which technique would he/she likely employ?
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). it allows scientists to quickly clone DNA in a test tube rather than in living cells
Krebs (TCA) cycle
- represents the phase of aerobic respiration
- 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP are produced per turn of the cycle
- the reactions occur within the matrix of the mitochondria
- one molecule of glucose produces two turns of the cycle
- pyruvate loses CO2 in the matrix od the mitochondria and combines with CoA to become Acetyl CoA.
- the Acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle by condensing with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
a four-legged vertebrate that is half-terrestrial, half-aquatic, intermediate between fishes and reptiles in body plan and reproduction mode are?
amphibians. examples are salamanders, frogs, and toads
birds most likely are descendants of:
reptiles; in that they lay eggs, have scaly legs, horny beaks, and contain many of reptilian internal structures.
bacteria derive their energy from:
glycolysis and electron transport chain.
which structure is considered the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system?
hypothalamus; it will help regulate the heart, arterial blood pressure, produce neurosecretory substances, regulate H2O and electrolyte balance, body temperature, and maintain homeostasis.
DNA is replicate at
interphase
insulin decreases
blood glucose
glucagon increases
blood glucose
the medulla is involved in control of
breathing
crossing over is seen during
prophase I. in eukaryotes, genetic recombination occurs during the crossing over
the process in an embryo in which one tissue causes another to differentiate is called:
induction
what is produced by the transcription process and is subsequently translated to form proteins?
mRNA
transcription occurs in the
nucleus
exons
the expressed DNA sequence
introns
the DNA sequence that is cut out, it has no known function.
chlorophyll is found in the
thylakoid membrane. thylakoid is a flattened sac
Leydig cells and Islet of Langerhans will produce:
hormones
Islet of Langerhans represent a collection of
alpha and beta cells of the pancreas.
- alpha cells secrete glucagon
- beta cells secrete insulin
Beginning at puberty, Leydig cells in the testes secrete
testosterone
a net gain of 2 ATP is seen when glucose forms
lactate
glycolysis is
anaerobic respiration and can supply energy even if no TCA cycle operates
in yeasts growing anaerobically. pyruvate is converted into
ethanol
gluconeogensis
occurs to produce glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
in active muscle, there is a higher amount of
lactate
lactate formation also produces
NAD+, which is necessary for glycolysis to continue
Chargaff’s Rules
the sum of Purines equals the sum of the Pyrimidines
A+G=C+T
Purines
Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidines
Cytosine and Thymine
*Uracil is also a Pyrimidine, but not found in DNA.
a sweat gland is an
apocrine and eccrine gland
apocrine
a gland that responds to stress
eccrine
responsible in the maintenance of body temperature
as we age the activity decreases with
increasing age
as the body temperature rises, dermal blood vessels
dilate; this allows blood to enter the dermis and can dissipate some of the heat
Mg+2 is found in
chlorophyll
Fe+2 is found in
hemoglobin
the stinging cells of cnidarians care called
nematocysts
ribosomes are found in both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes
cnidoblasts
are specialized cells located in the tentacles and body wall of coelenterates. the interior is filled by the stinging cells, neatocysts
DNA replicates
semi-conservatively
DNA contains
cytosine, adenine, thymine, and guanine
adjacent nucleotides are linked by
phosphodiester bonds in both DNA and RNA
In DNA, A+G equals
T+C
food pyramid
- each trophic level contains different quantities of potential energy
- energy is gained as the food pyramid descends
- energy and mass are lost as the food pyramid ascends
- the producers represent that trophic level of highest potential energy
prolactin is produced by
the anterior pituitary gland
prolactin is a hormone that stimulates
milk secretion in mammals
the sea urchin can develop a tough protective envelope called the fertilization membrane as a block to
polyspermy
polyspermy
is the entry of more than one sperm into an egg
in parthenogenesis, an egg develops without
fertilization. as seen in wasps
which organism is known for causing serious disease in man:
roundworms and flatworms
the placenta consists of
maternal and embryonic tissues
during the menstrual cycle, a midcycle surge of LH causes
ovulation
the amnion fluid is
a fluid-filled sac that will protect the embryo from mechanical shock
the three germ layers are completely formed during
late gastrulation
the umbilical cord connects the embryo to the
yolk sac, allantois, and amnion
chorion
a protective membrane; it becomes part of the placenta and secrete chorionic gonadotropin hormone which will maintain the Corpus Luteum.
The Corpus Luteum will
secrete progesterone that will help maintain the uterine lining
after about three month, the placenta produces the
needed progesterone and estrogen
melanin is a pigment produced by specialized cells called
melanocytes
melanocytes are most likely found in which layer of the epidermis?
stratum germinativum; the deepest layer of the epiderms
stratum corneum
is the outermost layer containing the dead epithelial cells
the dermis is below the epidermis and consists of
connective tissue, containing erector muscles, hair follicles, sensory receptors, sweat and sebaceous glands
serous membranes associated with the lungs are called
pleurae
alveoli
are the basic respiratory units where actual gas exchange occurs by passive diffusion
a sinus is
a cavity or hollow space in a bone
peritoneum is
the tissue that covers all the digestive organs and lines the body cavity
the fleshy, outer portion of the external ear is the
pinna
arterioles offer the greatest resistance to blood flow in the
circulation
mature red blood cells lack
a nucleus
striated muscle such as
cardiac and skeletal are composed of sarcomeres
cardiac output=
cardiac output=stroke volume x heart rate
stroke volume is
the volume of blood that is discharged from the ventricles with each contraction
as stroke volume or heart rate increases, cardiac output will
also increase
stroke volume =
stroke volume= end diastolic volume - end systolic volume
steroid hormones are synthesized from
cholesterol; they are lipid-soluble and can easily pass through cell membranes
the probability of a crossover occurring between two genes on a homologous chromosome is increased if
they are further apart
in progeria we see
premature aging
an inactive X-chromosome is called a
Barr body
achondroplasia is a type of
dwarfism; less than 4ft 5in tall; represents an autosomal dominant inheritance
as with colorblindness, hemophilia is an
X-linked recessive trait
a function of the skin is to
help regulate body temperature by allowing blood flow through its outer layers
progesterone will inhibit FSH release thereby prevent
ovulation
fungi are involved in decomposition.
.
a gametophyte is
a plant that produces gametes and is haploid
a sporophyte
is a diploid zygote
in glycolysis, the glucose molecule is oxidized into
pyruvate (2 moles)
chlorophyll: Mg++ homologous structures: common ancestor hypothalamus: temperature regulation meninges: covering around brain and spinal cord carbon fixation: dark reaction
.
examples of homologous structures
the wing of a bat, flipper of a whale, arm of a man, and foreleg of a cat
natural selection can occur because more animals are produced than will survive.
.
the ABO blood group exemplify
polymorphism
the forming of a new species through the geographic isolation of groups from the parent population is called
allopatric speciation
early earth’s reducing atmosphere consisted of:
NH3, H2, CH4, H2O, CO, CO2, and H2S
a fertilized egg is called a:
zygote; which is diploid
which of the following have a 4-chambered heart?
robin; mammals and birds
which have 3-chambered heart?
amphibians and reptiles
which have 2-chambered heart?
fish
what lacks seeds?
ferns
ferns
- a vascular plant that contains xylem and phloem tissue
- reproduce by spored
- lack seeds and flowers
- life cycle is referred to as alternation of generations which includes a sporophytic and gametophytic phase
angiosperms and gymnosperms are what kind of plants
seed-producing plants
when an amino acid enters the cytoplasm from a tRNA molecule, it first goes to the
ribosome
embedded in the cell membrane are proteins called
aquaporins
aquaporins
regulate the flow of water
it is believed that ___ molecules have been the fist carriers of genetic information
RNA
the earth is believed to be
4.5 billion years old
eukaryotes arose about ___ years ago, while prokaryotes around __ years ago.
eukaryotes arose about 0.5 years ago, while prokaryotes around 3.5 years ago.
spindle fibers are made from
microtubules and associated proteins
prophase is the longest
mitotic stage
a genome represents
a cells total DNA content
DNA is highly
conserved molecule
meiosis:
if the starting amount of chromosome is N, the daughter cells have ? amount of chromosomes
N/2
meiosis:
the process is part of ? reproduction
sexual
meiosis:
the process leads to ? variation
genetic
meiosis:
the process results in ??
gamete formation
consider a somatic cell undergoing mitosis. at anaphase the chromosome number is:
92 chromosomes, which is 4N
at anaphase of mitosis,
the sister chromatids of each chromosome are now separated from each other and have moved to opposite poles
two heterozygotes were crossed to yield a 2:1 genotypic ratio for a trait. What could account for this?
lethal gene
Phylums.
Cnidaria:
hydras, corals, jellyfish
Arthropoda(phylum):
spiders and crustaceans
Chordates(phylum):
tunicates, mammals, amphibians
Chordata(phylum):
jawless fish, reptiles
tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA are produced in
transcription
a 5’ACATCG3’ strand is complimentary to a
3’UGUAGC5’ RNA strand
tRNA will have what kind of structure
cloverleaf
DNA polymerase has proofreading ability.
.
angiosperms are the most diverse types of plants; they are the flowering plants.
.
A cotyledon or so-called seed lead will
store food for the germinating seed
endosperm will serve as
food for a flowering plant embryo, and later for the germinating seedling
vegetative propagation is a form of
asexual reproduction in plants
a red blood cell placed in water will:
swell and possibly burst
in a hypotonic solution a cell will:
swell and possibly burst
in a hypertonic solution a cell will:
shrivel
plants contain a cell wall and are more resistant to swelling in a
hypotonic solution
urine is ? to the blood and contains a
urine is hypertonic to the blood and contains a high urea and solute concentration
the combination of passive diffusion and active transport in the Loop of Henle of solutes helps in the
conservation of water
ADH will allow water to be reabsorbed at the distal tubules and collecting ducts when water conservation is need.
.
HCO3-, bicarbonate ion is the form in which CO2 is carried predominantly in the
blood
humoral immunity is responsible for the production of
immunoglobins or antibodies
T-lymphocytes are involved in
cell-mediated immunity
B lymphocytes produce
antibodies
amphibian
a vertebrate that is able to live on land and water
the amphibian has a
closed circulatory system
at the end of gastrulation in an amphibian egg, we see
endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
? is the most abundant metabolic waste product
CO2
DNA synthesis occurs during
S-phase
In G2 the cell prepares to
divide
During G1, we see the production of
mitochondria, ribosomes and much protein synthesis
ribosomes are assembled by the
nucleolus
which organism came first? reptiles amphibians bony fish jawless fish cartilaginous fish
jawless fish (include hagfish and lampreys). lampreys are parasites, hagfish are scavengers, and they were the first to evolve.
during denaturation of a protein there is a change in:
2degree, 3degree, and 4degree protein structure
what can cause denaturation of a protein:
heat, pH change, radiation, heavy metals such as Pb+2, Ag+, and Hg2+.
which process generates the most ATP?
electron transport chain and occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
where is bile produced
liver
where is pollen produced
anther
pistil
- female part of the plant
- consists of the stigma, style, and ovary
stigma
is sticky and will catch the pollen
style
is a tube-like structure connecting the stigma to the ovary.
stamen
the male part of the plant
petal
the colorful part of the plant that attracts insects, they have odors as well
collagen is found in the
extracellular matrix; a meshwork of macromolecules
collagen is a fibrous protein with a
triple helix; very rich in glycine
an osteoblast will create
new bone
platelets do not contain a
nucleus
myoglobin consists of
a single chain, and will store O2 in muscle
hemoglobin consists of
2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains (a globular protein)
which process goes against a concentration gradient?
active transport
active transport
transport across a membrane and it requires ATP
facilitated transport
goes along the concentration gradient
simple transport (diffusion)
utilizes specific transport molecules
acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the
parasympathetic nervous system
norepinephrine is the primary neurotransmitter of the
sympathetic nervous system
acetylcholine has excitatory and inhibitory effects on
muscles and glands throughout the body
an action potential is an
all-or-nothing event
DNA segments that are movable are:
transposable elements
differentiation occurs when a cell has become
specialized
differentiation will arise as a result of
selective gene expression
an annelid has a
closed circulatory system
an arthropod has a
an open circulatory system
annelids are the
segmented worms
nephridia is
the excretory organ of annelids
what factor is responsible for the striations in skeletal muscle?
the alternating between the thin actin filaments and the thick myosin filaments
thin filaments
are the actin, they are light bands [I-bands]
myosin filaments
are the thick, dark bands
nucleic acids are linear polymers linked by:
phosphodiester bonds
what is the first proof of a new species?
reproductive isolation
what causes a conformational change in the enzyme
substrate binding
enzymes display specificity and have an optimum pH.
.
as substrate is depleted the reaction rate
decreases
cephalopods
- have tentacles to capture prey
- include the squid; the largest known invertebrate
- contain a well developed nervous system
- giant nerve fibers connect the brain with muscles used in jet propulsion
- are highly active and have huge O2 demands
- have a closed circulatory system
prions
infectious protein particles
viruses can infect
plant and animal cells
RNA viruses are called
retroviruses
can antibiotics work against viruses?
no
prions are implicated in
mad cow disease, kuru, scrapie in sheep and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
the shape of the tRNA molecule is maintained by
hydrogen bods
translation refers to
the synthesis of proteins
DNA sequences that appear to move from one part of the genome to another are called
transposable elements
a distinguishing feature of tRNA is the presence of unusual bases such as
methylinosine, pseudouridine, and 4-thiouridine
glycolysis will produce
2 ATP net
2 NADH
2 moles pyruvate
2 H+
net reaction of glycolysis:
Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2NAD+ -> 2pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O
Kingdom Monera
blue-green algae and bacteria
Kingdom Protista
Paramecim
Kingdom Fungi
mushrooms
Kingdom Protista
green algae
Nematoda (phylum):
hookworms and pinworms
Platyhelminths (phylum):
tapeworms and flukes
Annelida (phylum):
leeches and earthworms
Echinodermata (phylum):
sea urchins, sea stars
Mollusca (phylum):
snails, slugs, clams, and octupuses
Cnidaria (phylum):
corals and sea anemones
tunicate (sea squirt)
a chordate, but also an invertebrate
echinoderms do not have a ? during any development stage
notochord
malpighian tubules of insects form
uric acid and discharge it into the gut
the functional unit of excretion in the earthworm is the
nephridium
echinoderms and chordates are
deuterostomes
deuterostomes
the mouth is formed after the anus from the blastopore
Bryophytes:
mosses
Bryophytes:
non-vascular land plants
Angiosperms:
flowering plants
Sporazoans:
plasmodium
arm bones include:
the humerus, ulna, and radius
leg bones include:
the fibula, tibia, and femur
osteoblasts are
bone-forming
osteoclasts are
bone-resorbing
osteoarthritis
as a person ages, the cartilage that covers the bone ends of freely moveable joints begins to wear away
rheumatoid arthritis
is a degenerative disorder with a genetic basis
marrow
soft, net like mass of connective tissue found inside bones
bone contains blood and
nerves
triglycerides are contained in the
yellow bone marrow
distinguishing feature of bone are
ground substance and collagen
haversian canals are
interconnected channels for blood vessels and nerves
trapped osteoblasts within the small spaces of bone, will
mature into osteocytes (living bone cells)
red blood cell:
oxygen transport
white blood cell:
infections
macrophage and neutrophils:
phagocytosis
plasma cells:
antibody production
mast cells:
histamine release
an amnion is present in all of the following except: pigeon turtle frog man lizard
frog
the allantois is found only in
reptiles, birds, and mammals
organisms which have the greatest number of similarities are grouped in a
genus
the most abundant RNA is
rRNA
the least abundant RNA is
mRNA
the smallest of the RNA molecules is
tRNA
a few kinds of bacteria convert Nitrogen to ammonia, which will rapidly dissolve in water to produce
NH4+
greenhouse gases include
methane, carbon dioxide, ozone, and chlorofluorohydrocarbon
in denitrification, bacteria can convert
nitrate or nitrite to N2, and a small amount of N2O
CO2 gas, fossil fuel burning, factory emissions, cars, and deforestation all contribute to the
greenhouse effect
fungi groups include:
Zygomycete
Basidiomycetes
Ascomycetes
Lichen is a combination of
a blue-green algae with a fungus
Lichen is a classic example of
symbiosis; the alga supplies the food, while the fungus protects the alga and absorbs water and minerals for both
the amount of blood in an average-sized adult is:
5 quarts
plasma
is the liquid portion of the blood and contains hundred of plasma proteins such as albumin, fibrinogen, and globulin
albumin
is the most abundant of plasma proteins; and is important for maintaining the blood’s osmotic pressure
blood clotting involves a series of chain reactions in which
fibrinogen is converted into fibrin
fibrin fibers form a “mesh” that
traps red blood cells to become a solid barrier to blood loss
unlike other blood cells, white blood cells can
leave the blood vessels and circulate in the lymphatic system
antibodies (immunoglobins) consist of
two heavy chains linked to two light chains by disulfide bonds
disulfide bonds -S-S- is seen in many proteins such as
antibodies, hair, and insulin; restrict the way the protein can fold; is a covalent bond
which part of a flower will catch the pollen?
stigma
fats yield more than twice the energy than a protein or a carbohydrate.
.
the electron transport chain pumps protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, thus creating a proton gradient.
.
molecular oxygen is the
final electron acceptor
Each NADH yields
3 ATP
Each FADH2 yields
2 ATP
O2 is needed for the electron transport system to operate.
.
FADH2 and NADH will transfer the electrons.
.
the savanna is
a grassland with low rainfall and punctuated with hooved, plant-eating mammals such as giraffes
the tundra will exhibit
a treeless frozen plain with a permafrost
a biome is
a particular type of regional ecosystem that is dominated by certain plants and animals
oceans cover more than ?% of the earth’s surface
70%
in a desert
there is very little rainfall and the potential for evaporation is much greater than the potential for rainfall
during evolution, several different well-protected species have come to resemble one another in what is called
mullerian mimicry
a bird will avoid a red colored insect with white stripes after two such insects have stung it. this is an example of
mullerian mimicry
plants may contain ?, which imparts an unsatisfactory taste to leaves and twigs, thus will discourage herbivores from consuming them.
tannin
unpalatable prey is often highly colored, which can warn predators that such organisms should be avoided.
.
batesian mimicry
we see deceptive mimicry. example: there is a family of flies that resemble the yellow bees and hornets, but do not sting at all.
B cells are lymphocytes that…
mature in the bone marrow and mediate anti body directed immunity
antibodies are produced by ? cells and can bind to ?
antibodies are produced by B cell and can bind to antigen
in cell-mediated immunity, T cells respond to virally infected
cells, fungi. parasites, and bacteria
stem cells i the bone produce ? by ?
lymphocytes by mitotic division
emphysema is a pathology marked by the destruction of the
alveoli
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells are found in the
trachea and the upper respiratory system
pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells may contain
goblet cells
goblet cells
secrete mucous
smoking can damage the cilia of respiratory cells and allow toxins to remain in the lungs.
.
human oocytes can be fertilized most successfully by the use of which technique?
micro-injection
micro-injection technique
involves directly injecting the sperm cell into an egg; the average success rate is about 75%. (treatment of male infertility)
in-vitro fertilization
involves fertilization between an egg and a sperm in a glass dish in the lab.
the promoter region in eukaryotes which contain a group of nucleotides is called a:
TATA box (very rich in adenine and thymine)
the promoter region in PROKARYOTES which contain a group of nucleotides is called a:
Pribnow box (very rich in adenine and thymine)
the assemblage of operator, promoter, and structural genes is called an
operon
an operator is the site to which
a repressor of protein synthesis binds
the operator is like an “on-and-off” switch that is the control point for
transcription
a repressor binds to the operator and will block ? polymerase attachment to the promoter, thus stopping transcription.
RNA
RNA polymerase bind to DNA regions called
promoters
five classes of immunoglobins:
IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD “GAMED”
Helper T cells refer to a type of ? that stimulates the production of ? by ? cells when an antigen is present.
Helper T cells refer to a type of lymphocyte that stimulates the production of antibodies by B cells when an antigen is present.
an antigenic determinant is the site on
an antigen to which an antibody binds; thus forming an antigen-antibody complex
several types of T cells include:
killer T cells
supressor T cells
memory cells
large white blood cells derived from monocytes are called
macrophages
macrophages
will engulf the antigen and present it to the Tcells that will activate the immune responce
Erythroblastosis fetalis
Rh- mother; Rh+ fetus. The Rh refers to a blood group. Rh + means you have the ability to produce the Rh antigen, while Rh - means you lack antigen production ability. In this case, the mother produces antibodies. (During birth, some of the baby’s blood may enter the mother’s blood.) If she later carries another Rh + fetus, her Rh antibodies will diffuse across the placenta and cause the blood cells to agglutinate and fetal blood cells are consequently destroyed.
an egg cell will contain
23 chromosomes and 23 chromatids
small DNA binding proteins that allow DNA coiling are called
histones
histones are found only in
eukaryotes
a chemical defense system that works with the immune response and supplements the inflammatory response is termed:
complement
the briefest mitotic stage is:
anaphase
anaphase
the centromeres split, and the daughter chromosomes begin to separate
eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells.
.
what structural evidence represent crossing over
chiasmata
synapsis occurs in
prophase I of meiosis
in synapsis,
we see the pairing of homologous chromosomes
the formation of new species due to geographical isolation is called
allopatric speciation
if speciation occurs after ecological, genetic or behavioral barriers arise within the same geographical boundary of single population, it is termed
sympatric speciation
genetic drift is most important in ? populations
small populations
allopatric population do not interbreed, since they are geographically separated.
.
a new population arises because of a single individual, or a few individuals causing a change in allele frequency is termed the
Founder Effect
Changes in the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium may be caused by
genetic drift, mutations, or by natural selection
in a genetic or population bottleneck, a disaster such as
flood, disease, or starvation nearly wipes out a large population
when O2 binds to hemoglobin, we see an increased affinity for O2 binding in the remaining subunits. This is called:
cooperativity
Green Algae (phylum):
spirogyra
Red Algae (phylum):
rhodophyta
Bryophytes (phylum):
moss
Nemotoda (phylum):
roundworms
Platyhelminthes (phylum):
flatworms
Annelida (phylum):
earthworm
cephalization refers to
having sensory structures and nerve cells mainly up front, in a head.
mollusks, arthropods, and annelids are
protostomes
echinoderms and chordates are
deuterostomes
in protostomes, the opening of the first indentation becomes the
mouth
in deuterostomes, the opening of the first indentation becomes the
anus
if an organism is too warm, blood vessels will
dilate
if an organism is too cold, the blood vessels will
constrict
the oncotic pressure tends to
pull fluid into the capillary
the hydrostatic pressure tends to
push fluid out of a capillary
a zymogen is an inactive form of
an enzyme; ex: pepsinogen
estrogen is a ? hormone, while insulin is a ? hormone.
estrogen is a steroid hormone, while insulin is a peptide hormone.
endocytosis
requires ATP. may involve the transport of liquid droplets into animal cells. sometimes called pinocytosis. during endocytosis we may also see solid material taken into the cell. material attaches to the cell membrane, and induces the membrane to bulge inward producing a vacuole. when the substance is solid, the process is called phagocytosis
spherical bacteria:
cocci
rod shaped bacteria:
bacilli
helical shaped bacteria:
spirilla
staphylococci:
clusters
streptococci:
chains; virulent
lymph nodes may contain
lymphocytes and macrophages
plasma cells produce
antibodies
the greatest resistance to blood flow is in the
arterioles
in the normal adult there are how many incisors, canines, premolars, and molars
4 canines
8 incisors
8 premolars
12 molars
the greater GC amount, the more
stable and more heat resistant the bacteria will be
cytochromes are a group of ? found in ?
cytochromes are a group of heme containing proteins found in the electron transport chain
era from most recent to oldest: Cenozoic Paleozoic Precambrian Mesozoic
Cenozoic > Mesozoic > Paleozoic > Precambrian
dinosaurs appeared during which era
Mesozoic
the first land vertebrates, land plants, fish; many alga appeared in the
Paleozoic era
invertebrates, monera, fungi where in the
Precambrian era
“ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” refers to:
embryonic stages of development of an organism repeat the evolutionary history of the species
shrinkage of a cell due to water loss is called
plasmolysis
sucrose is hydrolyzed into:
1 mole glucose and 1 mole of fructose
maltose
2 moles glucose
lactose
1 mole galactose + 1 mole glucose
the earliest organisms were probably
heterotrophs
obligate anaerobes cannot survive in an atmosphere of
oxygen
peptidoglycans contain
amino sugars
halophiles are bacteria that live in
extremely salty water
the purple or green bacteria found in anaerobic sediments of lakes or ponds carry out photosynthesis in which ? is the electron donor.
H2, H2S, or D
DNA is not found in: erythrocytes lymphocytes skin cells hair cells sperm cells
erythrocytes
hemoglobin gives up more ? under acidic conditions
O2
hemoglobin is a ?, while myoglobin is a ?
hemoglobin is a tetramer, while myoglobin is a monomer
the heme group is the same in both hemoglobin and myoglobin.
.
oxygen binding to hemoglobin is
cooperative
in the Bohr effect
we see hemoglobin-unloading O2 under condition of low pH (high CO2,[H+])
during allosteric interaction
when a molecule binds, a conformational change occurs and the primary binding site will no longer bind to its usual substrate.
what is known as the “second messenger”
cyclic AMP
cyclic AMP
- activates enzymes
- initiates protein synthesis
- can alter membrane permeability
monocots and dicots differ in the arrangement of
vascular bundles
monocots contain
one cotyledon
dicots contain
two cotyledons
in monocots, leaf veins run
parallel
in dicots, leaf veins
are netlike
protist include:
hydra paramecium euglena (some have plant and animal features) algae -they are eukaryotic -live in moist environments
bacteria are
prokaryotes that are in Kingdom Monera
Mendel proposed the Laws of
Independent Assortment & Segregation
According to Mendel’s Law of Segregation,
the two genes segregate from each other at meiosis, thus each gamete produced after meiosis has an equal chance of receiving one or the other gene, but not both
According to Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment
each pair of alleles segregates into gametes independently
A 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio is characteristic of the ? generation
F2
a monohybrid cross that gave a 1:2:1 phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation is indicative of:
incomplete dominance
pheromones is a chemical that travels
outside the body, carrying information to members of the same species
pheromones may act as a
“sex attractants”
an example of pheromones produced by ants is
formic acid
many vertebrates use pheromones in
feces, urine, or scent glands to mark territories
each gene pair tends to assort into gametes independently of other gene pairs that are located on
nonhomologous chromosomes
an observable trait of an organism is termed its
phenotype
an allele is
an alternative molecular form of a gene
mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own genetic information.
.
if an organism has a diploid number of 18, how many chromatids are visible at the end of mitotic prophase?
36 chromatids
a pH gradient is seen in which process
electron transport chain
order of increasing size between nucleus, chromosome, gene, adenine, and thymine
thymine < adenine < gene < chromosome < nucleus
which technique is most widely used to elucidate the three-dimensional structure of a macromolecule?
X-ray cyrstallography
lactate is produced in a fatigued
muscle
fermentation utilizes the reactions of glycolysis to produce
ethanol anaerobically
actively contracting muscle has a high rate of ? formation
lactate
in yeast cells that grow anaerobically, pyruvate is converted into
ethanol
under aerobic conditions, most of the pyruvate from glycolysis is oxidized by the
TCA cycle
lysosomes are found in both plants and animal cells.
.
macrophages are differentiated from monocytes.
.
macrophages are rich in
lysosomes.
the pH of the lysosome is about
5
food is prevented from entering the lungs due to the
epiglottis
the little “valve like” cartilage is called the
epiglottis
the larynx is the
voice box
the pharynx is the
back of the throat
the esophagus allows food to enter the
stomach
glands in the lining of the esophagus produce mucus, which will keep the passageway moist to
facilitate swallowing
a bacteriophage contains:
DNA or RNA. it is a virus that infects bacteria; it lacks cellular organelles
if a cell is attacked by a virus, which protein is produced by an animal cell in response?
interferon
interferon belong to a class of ? called ?
interferon belong to a class of glycoproteins called cytokines
the main purpose of a fungi is:
decomposition
which of the following is not an example of fungi? mold mildew yeast algae mushroom
algae; it is classified as a protist
which trophic level has the least biomass?
tertiary consumers
bacteria and fungi are decomposers that occupy no particular trophic level since they feed on organisms from all trophic levels.
.
the average ecological efficiency of any one trophic level is approximately
10%
the climax community is
the most stable community marked by a large biomass with no environment change
the orderly sequence of changes that occur is called
ecological succession
which procedure is most useful to study the intracellular location of proteins?
Pulse-Chase experiment
Pulse-Chase experiment
involved using a radioactive label on a protein to detect what is happening to the molecules in cells.
chemotrophs are
organisms that use redox reactions to produce ATP
Ubiquinone, also called Coenzyme Q, is a
lipid-soluble electron carrier seen in the electron transport chain
in oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from NADH to O2 through an ? to produce ?
electron transport chain; ATP
in a typical eukaryotic cell, the pH is usually around
7.4
amino acids are amphoteric; they can act as
acids or bases
the pH of gastric juice is under
2.0
glycine is the only ? since it has no chiral carbons
optically inactive amino acid
hemoglobin and myoglobin are ? globular proteins
water-soluble
after ovulation the ovarian follicle creates:
corpus luteum
