Biology Destroyer part 1 Flashcards
left lung
has 2 lobes; smaller than the right lung and has a cardiac notch to allow room for the heart and its vasculature
right lung
has 3 lobes; larger than the left lung
sensory or afferent neurons
carry nerve impulses from peripheral body parts into the brain or spinal cord; closely related with receptor cells located in the skin or sensory organs such as the eye or nose
motor neuron (efferent)
associated with muscles and glands
microarray technology
allows a researcher to examine many genes and determine which are expressed in a particular cell type. *this technique will allow you to determine gene expression.
microarray
a microscope slide containing thousands of individual genes place in discrete spots
DNA microarrays
can be used to detect DNA or RNA that may or may not be translated into proteins
monotreme
a mammal that lays eggs. ex: platypuses and echidnas (spiny anteaters)
marsupial
a mammal that completes embryonic development in a pouch. ex: kangaroo
chitin
a polysaccharide containing glucose molecules with nitrogen groups attached. it is actually a polymer of amino sugars. the cell walls of many fungi contain chitin.
sodium potassium pump
- an integral protein.
- actively pumps 3 Na+ out of a cell and 2 K+ into a cell against their gradients.
- uses ATP
- drugs such as Oubain and Digitalis stops the pump and Na+ will build up inside the cell
illeocecal valve
- is at the junction of the small and large intestine.
- will prevent the contents of the large intestine from entering the small intestine, and vice versa.
valves in the heart
semilunar and mitral valves
colchicine
- an alkaloid
- inhibits the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules
- mitosis would stop if colchicine is present
thyroid gland produces:
- calcitonin and iodine-containing hormones: thyroxine and triiodothyronine
thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones
influence growth, development and overall metabolic rates
ingestion of radioactive I-131 is a method employed to determine?
thyroid activity
blood enter the glomerulus via the ____ arteriole and leaves via the ____ arteriole.
afferent, efferent
if the efferent arteriole is constricted blood cannot flow passed the constricted point; this causes
an increase in the glomerular pressure as blood backs up into the glomerulus consequently the glomerular hydrostatic pressure is increases and the filtration rate rises.
if the afferent arteriole is constricted; blood flow is
diminished, hydrostatic pressure is decreased, and filtration decreases. sympathetic innervations of the kidneys primarily will affect the afferent arterioles and causes constriction and would reduce the urine output
steroid hormones
estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone.
bind to nuclear receptors
insulin will bind to
a cell-surface receptor
unique feature of angiosperms is
double fertilization of the egg nucleus and of the central nucleus. one sperm nucleus fertilizes the egg; we form a 2N zygote. the other sperm nucleus fertilizes the two haploid central nuclei forming a 3N endosperm nucleus, which is a nutritive tissue. the endosperm will provide nutrients to developing embryo
earthworm and salt
- the amount of salt is critical to an earthworm’s survival
- the skin of an earthworm secretes mucous which keeps the skin moist
- moist skin is needed for gas exchange, since earthworm have no respiratory organs
- salt can destroy the sensitive skin of the earthworm and cause death
glycolysis is the single metabolic pathway that will occur in all living cells.
.
indeterminate cleavage of a zygote will allow
a human twin to be produced. in this type of cleavage, each cell that is made retains its capacity to develop into a viable embryo
hepatic vein
- will allow blood to leave the liver.
- will empty into the inferior vena cava allowing blood to be returned to the general circulation
liver problems can prevent the normal removal of bile pigments via the
digestive tract.
if bile pigments such as bilirubin get into circulation, they can cuase
skin discoloration as seen in jaundice
autotrophs
- make their own food
- make organic molecules from inorganic raw materials which they get from the environment
- ex are plants; a plant is actually a photoautotroph, it uses light energy to make proteins, lipid, and carbohydrates
papillae
rough projections on the tongue surface that provides friction for handling food and contain taste buds
papillary muscle
cone-shaped muscles located in the heart
photoreceptors of the retina of the eye contain
rod and cone cells
rods
enable us to see at night, in black and white
cones
respond to bright light and can distinguish colors in daylight
ciliary muscle of the eye is involved with
changing lens shape
echinoderms include
invertebrates as starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. there creatures lack segmentation seen in annelids, and the adults display radial symmetry
convergent evolution
displayed when two distinct species with differing ancestries evolve to yield similar physical features. ex: humming bird and sunbird
plutipotent stem cell arises in early embryo and gives rise to
erythrocytes, platelets, and a potential line of white blood cells
thrombus
a blood clot; may cause a heart attack or stroke
the kidney may produce ___ in the tissues that are not receiving enough oxygen; red blood cell production in the bone marrow is stimulated
erythropoietin
erythrocytes vs leukocytes (which is most abundant)
erythrocytes
during an injury, the release of ___ will cause vasodilation, and will allow ___ to squeeze out of the capillaries
during an injury, the release of histamine will cause vasodilation, and will allow white blood cells to squeeze out of the capillaries
myeloma cell
a cancer cell with the ability for indefinite growth
hybridoma
- a lymphocyte fused with a modified myeloma cell.
- hybridoma cells can produce the desired antibody
prostagladins
modified fatty acids which help induce fever, pain sensation, and inflammation
what may inhibit prostagladin activity?
aspirin
dual function of pancreas:
- the exocrine tissue produces lipases, amylases and proteases, and exports them to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct.
- the endocrine function is to produce hormones such as insulin and glucagno
norepinephrine may act with epinephrine to
increase glycogen breakdown and allow glucose release into the bloodstream
norepinephrine can also as a
neurotransmitter
the adrenal glands make hormones such as
epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol and aldosterone
ecdysone
a hormone that is involved in insect molting and metamorphosis
first trimester
is the main period in which organs develop. because of rapid development, the embryo is most sensitive to drugs and radiation which can cause birth defects
the embryo is called a fetus at
about 8 weeks
during the second trimester
the fetus is very active and the uterus will grow enough for pregnancy to be noticeable
helicases
are motor proteins that can help in unwinding nucleic acid strands using energy from ATP
endonucleases
have the ability to cut DNA only at a particular sequence of nucleotides
DNA ligase
is involved in repairing discontinuities in DNA
dehydrogenases
are involved in redox reactions
a bacterium can start a process called endosporulation, whereby
an endospore is produced.
endospores
are resistant to extremes of temperature, chemicals, toxins, detergents, as well as radiation.
the cell wall of bacteria is made up of
peptidoglycan
the plant cell wall is made of
cellulose
lymph nodes contain
B cells, T-cells, and macrophages
large macrophages contain
fibril-like pseudopodia that can attach to a bacterium
macrophages
are the largest phagocytic cells and will phagocytize bacteria
fixed macrophages are very numerous in lymphatic organs such as the
spleen and lymph nodes
neutrophils have an average life span of
a few days and tend to self-destruct as foreign invaders are destroyed.
neutrophils make up about __ % of white blood cells
60%
analogous structures
- share no common ancestor but perform similar function
- evolved independently and are built from different structures
- ex: insect wings and those of birds
fixed-action patterns
- patterns that are not learned
- a specific environmental stimulus triggers a complex, coordinated behavioral response
- ex: reflexes
blood is composed of:
white blood cells, red blood cells, platelets, and plasma
white blood cells include:
neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, and eosinophils.
neutrophils make up 60%, while the lymphocytes make up 30% of the white blood cells
lymph
a tissue fluid that contains water, protein, salts, sugar and urea
lymphatic system
- returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood
- absorbs fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive system and transports them to the venous circulation
- provides a defense against micro-organisms; lymph nodes filter the lymph to remove foreign invaders, lymphatic organs such as the spleen contain lymphocytes that destroy these invaders
in the center of the villi, we see
lacteals, these small capillaries absorb the fats and fat-soluble vitamins
at the base of the neck, the lymph enters the
subclavian veins and becomes plasma in the blood
a cascade is
a series of amplifying steps.
ex: epinephrine can bind to a receptor and cause a cascade which ultimately leads to glycogen breakdown. glucagon can also cause a cascade upon binding to a receptor. nerve growth factors are proteins that also regulate cell behavior by binding with receptors that can cause a biochemical cascade
programmed cell death
or apoptosis, can help sculpt hands and feet as well as eyes during embryonic development. the cells between these structures die and separation occurs.
second law of thermodynamics:
in most energy systems, energy is partly converted to heat. there is an unstoppable move in the direction of disorder
catabolism
refers to the breakdown of nutrients to provide energy
anabolism
is the synthesis of biomolecules from simpler compounds
adenylyl cyclase is inactive until
epinephrine binds to receptor protein.
the cyclic AMP functions as a
second messenger
Darwinian fitness refers to
the contribution that an individual will make to the gene pool of the next generation. the greater the number of fertile offspring, the more likely Darwinian fitness can be measured
endotherms
animals such as birds, mammals, some fish, and even certain insects use metabolic energy to maintain a constant body temperature
ectotherm
warms its body mainly by heat absorption from the surroundings. many invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles are ectotherms
parts/segments to organs or limbs:
small intestine:
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
vertebral column:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx
upper limbs:
humerus, radius, ulna, carpal, metacarpal
lower limbs:
femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsal, metatarsal
freshwater fish
- live in a hypo-osmotic environment
- tend to take in a great deal of water and lose much salt
- they compensate by rarely drinking, and actively absorbing salts through cells located in their gills
- excrete a great deal of dilute urine
saltwater (marine) fish
- live in hyperosmotic environment
- lose water
- constantly drinking and actively excreting salt across their gills
micovilli
microscopic “hairs”that cover the small intestine and increase the surface area and aids in food absorption
to study nucleic acid metabolism a researcher would use ___
a radioisotope such as 32-P.
in animals and many frogs, yolk is most concentrated in the ___ pole, and least concentrated in the ___ pole.
in animals and many frogs, yolk is most concentrated in the vegetal pole, and least concentrated in the animal pole.
when some ectodermal cells elongate, ___ is formed
the neural plate
the folding of the neural plate gives rise to the ___ tube that will become the ___ and ___.
the folding of the neural plate gives rise to the neural tube that will become the brain and spinal cord.
the Gray crescent will establish the body axis, and is an area located on the..
side of the egg opposite the sperm penetration
cleavage is
a series of mitotic cell divisions that follow fertilization
somites
- are segmented blocks of tissue that form on either side of the notochord
- go on to produce the vertebrae of the backbone, but also muscles of the axial skeleton
gymnosperms include
spruce, pine, and fir trees
angiosperms include
fruits, flowering plants, maple, oaks, and grass
angiosperms are divided into
monocots and dicots
monocots
generally have parallel veins
dicots
have leaves with netlike veins
land plants exhibit an alternation of generations in which the
gametophyte (haploid multi-celled stage) alternates with a diploid multi-celled stage, the sporophyte
locus
(plural, loci) is a gene specific location along a length of chromosome
bacteria are prokaryotes that reproduce by
binary fission
surface appendages called ___, allow bacteria to adhere to one another or even to a mucous membrane.
pili (singular, pilus). Ex: Neisseria gonorrhea uses pili to attach to mucous membranes of its host. some pili hold bacteria together to allow DNA transfer during conjugation
pyruvate is gaining hydrogens, thus is ___. since pyruvate is ___, NADH is ___. ___ is formed with lactate, and is needed for glycolysis. The involved enzyme is a dehydrogenase, name ___ dehydrogenase.
pyruvate is gaining hydrogens, thus is reduced. since pyruvate is reduced, NADH is oxidized. NAD+ is formed with lactate, and is needed for glycolysis. The involved enzyme is a dehydrogenase, name lactate dehydrogenase.
the opening of the archenteron that can develop into the mouth or anus is called the
blastopore
temperature strongly affects ponds and lakes in north temperate areas. During the summer, warm water is at the ___ and is well aerated because of oxygen production by plants and mixing by the wind. The ___ will be high in nutrients. In the spring and autumn, oxygenated water from ___ goes to the ___ and nutrients from the ___ go to the ___. This process is known as a ___, and is vital for the survival and growth of organisms at all levels.
temperature strongly affects ponds and lakes in north temperate areas. During the summer, warm water is at the surface and is well aerated because of oxygen production by plants and mixing by the wind. The bottom layer will be high in nutrients. In the spring and autumn, oxygenated water from surface goes to the bottom and nutrients from the bottom go to the top. This process is known as a turnover, and is vital for the survival and growth of organisms at all levels.
somatostatin suppresses
the release of gastrointestinal hormones. this suppression will decrease the rate of gastric emptying along with reducing blood flow within the intestines.
gastrointestinal hormoms include:
gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin
the menstrual cycle consists of three phases:
menstrual flow phase, proliferative phase, and secretory phase.
menstruation will being with the
disintegration of the endometrium (the inner lining of the uterus)
the endometrium thickens in response to
estrogen levels during the proliferative phase and vascularization occurs.
during the secretory phase,
the endometrium continues to thicken, arteries enlarge, and glands grow in response to progesterone estrogens
if pregnancy does occur,
estrogens and progesterone levels remain high to prevent disintegration of the endometrium
plants produce gametes within structures called
gametangia
eggs are found in the
archegonia
the eggs are fertilized in
the female gametangia
the male gametangia are located in the
antheridia and represent the sperm-producing structures.
motile sperm swim from the ___ to the ___ for fertilization
motile sperm swim from the antheridia to the archegonia for fertilization
the two main branches of the immune system include:
the humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity
humoral immunity
acts against pathogens such as free viruses and bacteria and is based on circulation of antibodies
cell-meditated immunity
works against pathogens that have entered body cells by use of T-cells
cells primarily involved in diapedesis:
neutrophils, leukocytes, and cytokines. neutrophils the first cell type to arrive
chemicals that are released by the injured tissue cells are?
prostagladins and histamine; this causes vasodilation and an increase in capillary permeability
detritivores
organisms that consume dead or decaying organic matter (detritus). include: earthworms, slugs, millipedes, woodlice, and crabs. These organisms are decomposers
type O blood
is the universal donor
type AB blood
is the universal recipient
agglutination
of clumping of the red blood cells. mixing of different blood types
south of the tundra lies the
coniferous forest or taiga; the vegetation is dominated by spruce, fir, and pine trees. the climate is characterized by cool summers and cold winters
the temperate deciduous forest has
large trees such as seen in North Carolina
chaparral is dominated by
dense, spiny shrubs
multiple allele system
if more than two forms of alleles exist for a gene locus; ex: four blood types are possible A,B,AB, and O. therefore, the ABO blood groups exemplify multiple alleles
ribosomes are made in the
nucleolus
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is involved in
lipid synthesis and drug detoxification
desmosomes
- occur within all types of animal tissues
- abundant in the skin and randomly arranged on the lateral sides of plasma membranes
- allow cells to become joined into strong epithelial sheets
upon stressing a bone, bone forming cells called osteoblasts deposit collagen and release calcium phosphate to strengthen the bone. the mineral hydroxyapetite is produced
.
the first step in urine formation is the
filtration of substances through the glomerular membrane into Bowman’s capsule
Edward syndrome
a trisomy of chromosome 18
Down syndrome
a trisomy of chromosome 21. due to nondisjunction; the failure of the chromosomes to separate
Klinefelter syndrome
a trisomy of the sex chromosomes
Turner syndrome
a monosomy having on XO
human autosomes and sex chromosomes can be precisely examined at ___ that is when they are most condensed.
metaphase
karyotyping allows for a very accurate diagnostic tool for congenital disorders such as a Down syndrome.
.
nonsteroid hormones (H2O soluble) are made from
amino acids; ex: norepinephrine and epinephrine
steroid hormones (lipid soluble) are derived from
cholesterol
lumen
a space inside a tube
sphincters
rings of muscle in the wall of the esophagus, stomach, and other specialized regions.
submucose
is a connective tissue with blood and lymph vessels along with nerve plexuses
prokaryotes lack organelles such as
mitochondria, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus and lysosomes
salivary and pancreatic amylase break down
carbohydrates
angiosperms are the
flowering plants; they are divided into monocots (narrow leaves, such as grass) and dicots (broad leaves i.e. shrubs)
the undifferentiated cambium tissue develops into
phloem and xylem (vascular tissue)
xylem
transports H2O and minerals up the stem
phloem
transports nutrients down the stem
non-tracheophytes
plants lacking vascular tissues; these include simple plants
gymnosperms do not have
flowers; i.e. Red wood, pine, juniper tree (a fruit is the ripened ovary of a flower).
stomata conrol
gas exchange by opening and closing
the chloroplast contains an
inner and outer membrane
the inner membrane contains a fluid called
stroma
a series of stacked disks are present, each disk is a
thylakoid, which contains the photosynthetic pigment
meristem is found in
higher plants and represents undifferentiated cell types
apical meristem contains
cells that produce branches and flowers
a nucleoside consists of
a sugar and a base
a nucleotide is composed of
a sugar, base, and a phosphate group
kinases transfer
phosphoryl groups
a phosphatase catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of a
phosphate ester bond
a lyase catalyzes the cleavage of
C-C, C-O, and C-N bonds by elimination; a double bond is formed
a dehydrogenase is involved in an
oxidation-reduction reaction
hemoglobin contains more than one binding state therefore it is ___; it can bind:
allosteric. it can bind O2, CO2, CO, and H+
a low pH causes Hb to unload
O2, as does a high CO2 level
Hb is a tetramer consisting of
two alpha chains and two beta chaings
the non-protein portion of Hb is called
heme (prosthetic group)
yellow bone marrow functions as
fat storage
in spongy bone, we see red marrow that functions in the formation of
red blood cells, certain white blood cells, and platelets (throbocytes)
if blood cell supply is low, it is possible that yellow bone marrow changes into
red bone marrow
platelets arise from large, multinucleated cells in the red marrow called
Megakaryocytes
gibberellins are
plant hormones that may induce certain plants to flower as well as allow stem elongation
ethylene stimulates
fruit ripening
abscisic acid is
an inhibitor of plant growth hormones
cytokinins are
plant hormones involved with promoting cell division
microbodies (peroxisomes) convert
H2O2 into H2O + O2.
collagen consists of
a triple helix
in Gluconeogenesis,
non-carbohydrates such as fats and amino acids are made into glucose; this occurs mainly in the cytosol
centrioles are found only in
animal cells and are involved in cell division
sister chromatid separation is in
anaphase
the nucleolus reappears in
telophase
cytokinesis
when the cytoplasm separates, is in late anaphase or early telophase
during prophase,
chromatids shorten and thicken, nucleoli disappears, spindle fibers form, and centrioles in animal cells move to opposite ends
p+q=1
p=dominant allele frequency
q=recessive allele frequency
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
2pq=frequency of heterozygous individual
p^2=frequency of homozygous dominants in a population
q^2=frequency of homozygous recessive
p^2+2pq=dominant phenotype
prokaryotes reproduce by
binary fission
blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are prokaryotes found in the kingdom
monera
in a lichen, a cyanobacteria provides organic nutrients for the fungus, thus they live
symbiotically together (the fungus offers protection).
circular DNA molecules that exist in bacterial cells are called
plasmids
multiple DNA copies can be made by the
PCR technique, developed by Kary Mullis
the most accurate way to work out molecular structures is by
X-ray diffraction
peripheral proteins are usually bound to the charged polar head group of the bilayer. mild treatments with ___ can remove them.
salts
what is needed to remove the integral proteins?
detergents, organic solvents, and ultrasonic vibrations
the cell wall is made up of
peptidoglycan
peptidoglycan is composed of
polysaccharide and polypeptide chains
gram positive bacteria have a
thick peptidoglycan layer and appear purple after gram staining.
the thin peptidoglycan layer of bacteria causes most of the gram stain to be
washed off
teichoic acids are used as
recognition and binding sites by bacterial viruses that causes infection
myelin is made by
schwann cells
myelin acts as an
electrical insulator; it increases the rate in which the axon can translate signals
gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the
cytosol
the nerve signal is:
presynaptic cell -> synaptic cleft -> postsynaptic cell
the middle ear contains the three bones:
incus, malleus, and stapes
the inner ear contains:
the semicircular canals responsible for balance and the snail-like structure called the cochlea, where sound waves in the air are converted into neural messages
the hormones of the anterior pituitary gland include:
HGH, LH, FSH, TSH, and Prolactin
the posterior pituitary gland only stores
ADH (vasopressin) and oxytocin, both are made in the hypothalamus
the adrenal cortex makes
aldosterone and cortisol
the adrenal medulla makes
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
glucagon is made by the
pancreatic alpha cells
insulin is made by the
beta cells
glucagon and cortisol raise
glucose levels in the blood
insulin lowers
glucose levels
aldosterone is involved in
Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion in the kidneys collecting duct, as well as a rise in blood pressure and blood volume
fungi
- are eukaryotic heterotrophs
- they secrete digestive enzymes and then absorb the soluble products of digestion
- composed of filaments called hyphae; collectively the hyphae are called mycelium
- can reproduce sexually or asexually
- haploid state predominates, but they do alternate between haploid and diploid stages
- saprophytic, they break down the remains of living organisms that have died
- immotile and have cell walls
- a fungus not only attacks dead matter, but may attack living tissue such as in athletes foot
- more similar to human cells than bacterial cell
habitat
the physical environment in which the organism lives
niche
the role that an organism plays in its natural community, the way that the organism lives, eats and reproduces
community
the interacting of different populations of species
population
a group of individuals belonging to the same species that interbreed white occupying a given area at a given time
biome
a geographic region inhabited by a distinct community. include the tundra, taiga, tropical rain forests, savanna, deserts, grasslands and temperate deciduous forests
tundra
dominated by moss, lichen, low-growing shrubs, cold winters and short growing season
taiga
a coniferous forest with spruce, fir, and pine trees
types of symbiosis
parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
parasitism
one organism benefits while the other is harmed
mutualism
when both organisms benefit
commensalism
one organism benefits while the other in unharmed
saprophytes
the decomposers that get energy from dead organisms or decaying matter
food chain
(bottom of the pyramid) producers -> primary consumers -> secondary consumers -> tertiary consumers (top of the pyramid)
producers
plants
primary consumers
herbivores (shrimp)
secondary consumers
carnivores (mud crab)
tertiary consumers
top carnivores (striped bass)
arthropods make up the largest
animal phylum
examples of arthropods
spiders, insects, crabs, and lobsters; they have jointed legs, exoskeletons, open circulatory systems, bilateral symmetry
insects
have a head, thorax, and abdomen. the spiracles and tracheal tubes comprise their respiratory system
annelids
have true coeloms (body cavity), closed circulatory system, and includes earthworm. nephridia (excretory structures) and ganglia (cluster of nerve cell bodies) are present.
apoptosis
is programmed cell death
morula
a solid ball of cells
blastula
hollow ball of cells formed by morula cells that divided mitotically
the blastula becomes the
gastrula
ectoderm
hair, eyes, teeth, skin, nervous system, lens of the eye
endoderm
lining of bladder, digestive and respiratory tracts, liver, pancreas, gall bladder
mesoderm
skeleton, muscles, gonads, kidney, and circulatory system
cells of the stomach:
chief, parietal, G, and mucous cells
chief cells
secrete pepsinogen
parietal cells
secrete HCl, intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)
G-cells
secrete the hormone gastrin which stimulate HCl production of parietal cells
mucous cells
secrete mucous that lubricates the stomach and protects the stomach from HCl produced
teeth are derived from
ectoderm
starfish are from phylum __ ? and display
Echinodermata; radial symmetry
coelenterates
- include jellyfish, sea anemones, hydra
- radially symmetrical
- have a single opening
- mouth used for transport and digestive purposes
- are carnivores
- have tentacles to capture prey
- contain stinging cells called nematocysts
nematocysts
stinging cells in tentacles
collagen
- a fibrous protein that makes up bone and connective tissue
- the most abundant protein in vertebrates
- the structure is a triple helix along with hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine
- every third position is occupied by the amino acid glycine
in scurvy
(bleeding gums) we see the amino acid proline not being hydroxylated to hydroxyproline
osteoblasts
- secrete collagen
- build bone
- do not carry out mitosis
osteoclasts
- break down bone
- cannot carry out mitosis
PTH (parathyroid hormone) will stimulate
osteoclastic activity
calcitonin tones down the
blood calcium level by decreasing osteoclastic activity
cardiac muscle
single nucleus, has striations as well as complex junctions between adjacent individual cells called intercalated discs, it is involuntary
skeleton muscle
multinucleated, voluntary, and striated. normally does not undergo mitosis, contains thick myosin protein filaments that slide past the thin actin protein filaments
smooth muscle
single nucleated, found in walls of urinary bladder, digestive system, uterus, blood vessels, involuntary, non-striated, actin and myosin are present, but not organized into sarcomeres like seen in skeletal muscle
epinephrine will:
- increase blood glucose, blood flow to skeletal muscle
- increase heart rate, respiratory rate
- increase rate of glycogenolysis
- will constrict blood vessels to decrease blood supply to digestive tract and kidneys
- dilation of pupils
- increase blood flow to brain and blood pressure
slow block to polyspermy
cortical reaction. a sperm-proof fertilization membrane is formed when the cortical granules in the egg fuse with the plasma membrane. as enzymes are released, biochemical reactions harden the vitelline layer and allow no further sperm from entering
acrosomal reaction is the fast block
in which an electrical response occurs to change the membrane potential to prevent polyspermy
xylem contains two types of cells
tracheids and vessel members
xylem
conducts water and dissolved mineral absorbed from the soil, and mechanically supports the plant
the yearly xylem deposits make up the
annual growth rings used to record the age of a plant
phloem is another vascular tissue consisting of
sieve tubes through which sugars and other solutes are conducted
plants require __ to grow
N2.
atmospheric N2 is converted into
NH4+ or NO3- to be utilized by plants
nitrogen fixing bacteria are located in
root “swellings” called nodules
plants that contribute to nitrogen fixing include
the legume family
examples of legume family
peas, peanut, soybeans, and beans
nitrogen fixation
N2 from the atmosphere is converted to NH3
“fight or flight” response
is elicited by the sympathetic nervous system in response to stressful situations
hormones that belong to a class of compounds called catecholamines
epinephrine and norepinephrine
reverse transcriptase
an enzyme seen in retroviruses in which RNA is the genetic material
DNA is made from RNA and incorporated into
the host cell
sometimes the host cell is not lysed, but the virus reproduces in synchrony with the host cell and becomes a
prophage and lies dormant
the virus is said to be in a lysogenic phase, but could become active if exposed to harsh environment factors such as
ultraviolet radiation, stress, or chemicals
in adaptive radiation,
we see a number of different species emerge from a single ancestor. the finches on the galapagos islands are an example
divergent evolution
a number of different species emerge from a single ancestor
Hardy-Weinberg law shows…
examines. .
assuming. .
-Hardy-Weinberg law shows us how phenotype and genotype stability can be achieved in a population.
- this law examines population gene pools, not genotypes of individuals.
- assumptions:
large population
random mating
no net migration
no mutation
no natural selection
no change in the gene pool of a population
chromosomal breakage may cause
deletions or duplications. due to viruses, chemicals, and radiation.
during an inversion, a chromosomal segment is turned
180 degrees
a translocation results when
two nonhomologous chromosomes interchange genes, we see the attachment of all or part of one chromosome to another
it takes 3 codons to make
1 amino acid
transcription occurs in the
nucleus
the formation of mRNA required the enzyme
RNA polymerase
A=T has
two hydrogen bonds
C(triple bond)G has
three hydrogen bonds
the higher the percentage of CG, the more stable the
DNA sample will be and higher will its melting point be
the semen contains
sperm cells plus glandular secretions from the prostate gland and seminal vesicles
the vas deferens transports
the sperm to the urethra then out the penis
the Cowper’s (bulbourethral) glands ass more thick
mucous material to the semen
spermatozoa are matured in the coiled tube called the
epididymis
sperm productions (spematogenesis) occurs in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes
leydig cells secrete
testosterone that allows germ cells to mature into sperm cells
enzymes
are globular proteins that will love the energy of activation
feedback inhibition is used to
regulate metabolic pathway. and allows for an entire reaction series to be shut down
the corupus luteum breaks down into ____ if no fertilization occurs
corpus albicans
LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce
progesterone and estrogen which allow for blood vessels to grow and for the uterine linging to prepare for implantation of the egg
if LH was to decrease, as in the case of no fertilization,
progesterone levels fall, which cause the uterine wall tissue to break down and menstruation begins
lysosome have an
acidic pH; where the enzymes of cellular digestion are found
golgi apparatus
are membrane-bound sacs involved in the packaging of glycoproteins
oocyte development is halted at the
primary oocyte stage until puberty (meiosis is arrested in Prophase I)
where does the DNA transfer of a virus happen?
during transduction
SA node
- “pacemake” is a small tissue mass located at the entrance to the right atrium.
- delivers electrical impulses at regular intervals that allow the heart to beat
- this electrical excitation causes the atria to contract, thus pushing blood into the ventricles
the amphioxus is a(n)
invertebrate. *the amphioxus and tunicates are commonly asked questions. they represent chordates that are not vertebrates; they do not lose their notochord
chordates
have a notochord at least some time during development
both superior and inferior vena cava carry deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower extremities respectively to the
right atria
molecular chaperones prevent
aggregation of newly formed proteins until they can properly fold
cholecystokinin
is a hormone made by cells of the duodenum (first part of the small intestine) that stimulates the production of pancreatic juice, especially the bicarbonate portion.
gastrin
is made in the stomach. this hormone stimulates HCl secretion
enterogastrone
is made in the duodenum, and when fatty food is in the intestine, it inhibits stomach gland secretion and slows the stomach’s muscular movement. by slowing the stomach’s emptying, more time is allowed for meals that contain fat to digest
chemoreceptors
- are specialized structures located in the walls of major arteries
- they detect changes in H+, O2, and CO2.
breathing rate
- greatly sensitive to blood CO2 and H+ ion concentration
- a small increase in either H+ or CO2 will cause an increase in breathing rate
- a high blood O2 partial pressure would decrease breathing rate
the pulmonary vein and the umbilical vein, unlike other veins carry
oxygenated blood
blood can bypass the liver due to the
ductus venosus
most blood in the right atria is partly oxygenated and can bypass the pulmonary circulation by entering the left atria directly from the right atria by the
foramen ovale; this shunt will divert blood away from the pulmonary arteries
the ductus arteriosus conducts
some blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta, this bypassing the lungs
two main parts of the autonomic nervous system:
sympathetic and parasympathetic
when stimulated, the sympathetic nervous system allows you to respond to
stress, i.e. increased heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, decrease in blood flow to the kidneys and digestive organs
the parasympathetic systems allows what to occur:
digestion and elimination
the cerebellum is the part of the brain involved with
muscle coordination, balance, and equilibrium
the corpus callosum
- divides the brain hemispheres
- one of the largest myelinated tracts
- allows the right and left-brain portions to communicate
the central nervous system consists of
the brain and spinal cord
the peripheral nervous system is
all of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous system. it includes nerves and ganglia
two parts of the peripheral nervous system include:
the somatic nervous system (motor and sensory neurons) and autonomic nervous system
during the light reaction, a high [H+] is produced within the
thylakoids
the light requiring reactions of photosynthesis produce
NADPH, and build a high concentration of H+ ions, which are used to make ATP
in the dark reaction, which occurs in the
stroma of the chloroplasts, ATP and NADPH are both used in the “fixation” of carbon
during carbon fixation,
CO2 is incorporated into carbohydrate molecules
the calvin cycle (dark reaction) requires
2 ATP and 2 NADPH for each CO2 molecule incorporated into carbohydrate
the production of ribulose biphosphate requires
1 ATP
a total of ? ATP and ? NADPH are used for each CO2 molecule that becomes carbohydrate
3 ATP 2 NADPH
O2 is a _ of the light reaction
by-product
PGAL is made during the dark reaction from
CO2 and ribulose
? turns of the calvin cycle are needed to produce a glucose molecule
6
the axial skeleton includes:
the skull, vertebra, and ribs
the appendicular skeleton include:
the bones of the arms and legs as well as the boned of the pelvis and pectorial girdle
