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1
Q

attribution theory

A

tendency to give explanations for someone’s behavior, often by crediting the situation or person’s disposition

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2
Q

fundamental attribution theory

A

the tendency to overestimate the impact of person’s disposition and underestimate impact of situation

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3
Q

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

A

tendency to agree to larger requests after responding to a smaller request

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4
Q

what experiment did philip zimbardo conduct? what did he discover?

A

he conducted the stanford prison experiment/lucifer effect. he discovered that people take on the role of what they feel are proper for the situation

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5
Q

explain the stanford prison experiment

A

psychologist philip zimbardo randomly assigned people the roles of a guard and prisoner to play in a prison. people playing as guards were aggressive and abusive towards the prisoners. the mistreatment against the prisoners became immoral and the experiment was cancelled after 6 days.

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6
Q

cognitive dissonance

A

mental discomfort caused by two contradicting beliefs, values, or attitudes (ex. smokers continue to smoke even though they know it’s unhealthy)

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7
Q

what did solomon asch discover?

A

conformity

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8
Q

conformity

A

process where people change their beliefs, attitudes, actions or perceptions to match those held by groups

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9
Q

what experiment did stanley milgram conduct? what did he study?

A

he conducted the shock experiment, through which he studied obedience

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10
Q

obedience

A

people tend to obey authority figures even if they do not agree

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11
Q

explain the shock experiment

A

conducted by stanley milgram. participants were told to press a button in order to shock another person. most participants obeyed (especially if the instructor was an authority figure or came from prestige) and continued to shock the victim even if they were in pain. they also continued even as the shock increased to a dangerous amount

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12
Q

social facilitation

A

improved performance in presence of others

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13
Q

social loafing

A

in the presence of others, people tend to do less, partly because they believe others will do it

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14
Q

deindividualization

A

loss individuality and personal responsibility, typically in a when in a group

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15
Q

group polarization

A

when a group adopts a more extreme decision/point

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16
Q

groupthink

A

a mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives

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17
Q

just-world phenomenon

A

tendency of people to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve (karma)

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18
Q

social traps

A

situations in which the conflicting parties pursue their self interests and become caught in mutually destructive behavior

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19
Q

in-group

A

any group to which one belongs or which one identifies

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20
Q

out-group

A

group of people who do not belong to one’s own social group

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21
Q

hindsight bias

A

tendency to believe that, after learning an outcome, we would have predicted it beforehand

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22
Q

prejudice

A

unjustifiable attitude towards a group and its members

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23
Q

mere exposure effect

A

tendency to develop preferences for things simply because we are familiar (merely exposed) with them

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24
Q

altruism

A

unselfish regard for the welfare to others

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25
Q

bystander effect

A

tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

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26
Q

reciprocity norms

A

the expectation that we should return help, not harm, to those who have helped us

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27
Q

biological psych

A

explore the links between brain and mind

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28
Q

cognitive psych

A

study how we perceive, think, and solve problems

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29
Q

humanistic psych

A

study that says humans are and can become good and possess a free-will

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30
Q

behavioral psych

A

study that says all behavior is observable and measurable

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31
Q

psychoanalytic psych

A

study of the unconscious, includes childhood and aggression issues

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32
Q

sociocultural psych

A

study of how cultural and political experiences affect our life

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33
Q

evolutionary psych

A

study of the evolution of humans over time, psych related to genetics and nature-born

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34
Q

developmental psych

A

study of our changing abilities over the course of life

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35
Q

who is wilhelm wundt?

A

the father of psychology

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36
Q

introspection

A

looking inward at one’s own mental processes

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37
Q

what did bradford titchener study?

A

structuralism

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38
Q

structuralism

A

analyzing sensations, images, and feelings into their most basic elements

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39
Q

what did william james study? what did he believe?

A

he studied functionalism. he believed the brain and mind are constantly changing

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40
Q

functionalism

A

the mind is a functional tool that allows us to adapt to our environments

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41
Q

what did john locke believe?

A

he believed in tabula rosa–that the mind is a blank slate written on by experience

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42
Q

who is sigmund freud?

A

the founder of psychoanalysis

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43
Q

psychoanalytic theory

A

all behavior is meaningful and driven by unconscious forces

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44
Q

applied research

A

aims to solve practical problems

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45
Q

basic research

A

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

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46
Q

hypothesis

A

a testable prediction

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47
Q

independent variable

A

the factor being manipulated by the experimentor

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48
Q

dependent variable

A

the factor that changes in response to the independent variable

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49
Q

theory

A

an explanation that integrates principles, organizes, and predicts behavior or events

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50
Q

operational definition

A

a description of something in terms of the operations (procedures) by which it could be observed and measured

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51
Q

validity

A

it measures what you want it to measure

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52
Q

reliability

A

it is replicable and is consistent

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53
Q

sampling

A

process by which participants are selected

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54
Q

population

A

the amount of participants that can be selected for the sample

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55
Q

representative sample

A

take the results from a smaller group and apply that to a larger group of people

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56
Q

random sample

A

participants are chosen at random, making everyone has an equal chance of being selected for the experiment

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57
Q

experimental group

A

the group that is being given the independent variable

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58
Q

control group

A

the group that is not given the independent variable and is used as a basis to be compared to

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59
Q

experimenter bias

A

the experimenter, either unconsciously or consciously, affects the outcome of the experiment

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60
Q

single-blind procedure

A

the subjects do not know to what group they belong

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61
Q

double-blind procedure

A

neither the experimenter nor the subject knows to what group the subjects are in. used to prevent experimenter bias

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62
Q

hawthorne effect

A

if you know you’re being studied, you will act differently than you normally would

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63
Q

placebo

A

something administered that has no real affect on the person other than what they think mentally

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64
Q

positive correlation

A

both factors moving in the same direction (up and up or down and down)

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65
Q

negative correlation

A

factors moving in opposite directions (up and down, down and up)

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66
Q

survey

A

a questionnaire to determine the self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of people to gain information

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67
Q

naturalistic observation

A

observing and recording behavior in the wild/natural environment

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68
Q

case study

A

getting a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants

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69
Q

mean

A

average of the scores

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70
Q

median

A

middle score

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71
Q

mode

A

the most frequently occurring score in the distribution

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72
Q

range

A

higher score minus the lower score

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73
Q

standard deviation

A

the average distance of scores around the mean

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74
Q

z-score

A

a type of standard score that tells us how many standard deviation units a given score is above or below the mean

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75
Q

myelin sheath

A

fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds the neural impulse

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76
Q

axon

A

wire-like structure ending in the terminal that extends from the cell body

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77
Q

neurons

A

a nerve cell. the basic building block of the nervous system

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78
Q

sensory neurons

A

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

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79
Q

interneuron

A

central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between sensory and motor neurons

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80
Q

motor neurons

A

neurons that carry incoming information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

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81
Q

neurotransmiters

A

chemical contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate. fit into receptor site of neurons

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82
Q

agonist

A

drugs that enhance the effect of a neurotransmitter

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83
Q

antagonist

A

drugs that block the effect of a neurotransmitter

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84
Q

what makes up the central nervous system?

A

the brain and spinal cord

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85
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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86
Q

what systems are inside the peripheral nervous system?

A

the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

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87
Q

somatic nervous system

A

part of the peripheral nervous system. controls the body’s voluntary actions and skeletal muscles

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88
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

part of the peripheral nervous system. controls the body’s involuntary actions, glands, and muscles of the internal organs. contains the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

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89
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

arouses the body for fight-or-flight

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90
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

calms the body and restores energy

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91
Q

endocrine system

A

includes glands that secretes hormones

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92
Q

pituitary gland

A

the “master gland” and most influential gland. regulated growth and controls other endocrine glands

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93
Q

EEG scan

A

an amplified recording of waves of electrical activity that goes across the brain’s surface

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94
Q

PET scan

A

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs certain tasks

95
Q

MRI scan

A

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce a computer generated image that distinguishes between the types of soft tissues in the brain

96
Q

medulla

A

part of the brain stem. controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing

97
Q

reticular formation

A

screens incoming info, filters out irrelevant info, controls arousal and attention

98
Q

thalamus

A

the brain’s sensory switchboard, directs all senses except for smell

99
Q

pons

A

part of the brain stem. makes chemicals involved with sleep and facial expressions

100
Q

cerebellum

A

attached to the rear of the brain stem. controls coordination and balance

101
Q

limbic system

A

associated with emotions and (anger) drives (hunger). 3 parts: amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus

102
Q

amygdala

A

part of the limbic system and involved in emotions

103
Q

hypothalamus

A

part of the limbic system. controls the metabolic functions (body temp, hunger, arousal)

104
Q

hippocampus

A

part of the limbic system and involved in learning and memory

105
Q

frontal lobe

A

front-most lobe. involved with judgment and cognitive functions

106
Q

parietal lobe

A

top-most lobe. involved in touch

107
Q

temporal lobe

A

bottom-most lobe. involved in memory and hearing

108
Q

occipital lobe

A

back-most lobe. involved in vision

109
Q

what did william penfield study?

A

he studied the effects of stimulation on the motor cortex

110
Q

who is phineas gage and why is he important to psychology?

A

he was a worker who got an iron rod impaled through his head and miraculously survived. though he survived, he became a completely different person. he is important because he was living evidence that the different parts of the brain have different functions

111
Q

broca’s area

A

damage to this area can cause an inability to produce speech

112
Q

wernicke’s area

A

damage to this area can cause an inability to understand language

113
Q

plasticity

A

the brain’s ability to modify itself after some kind of injury/illness

114
Q

split brain

A

term for when the corpus callosum is cut and info cannot travel to the other side of the brain

115
Q

corpus callosum

A

responsible for higher thinking functions and connects the two sides of the brain

116
Q

what is the left hemisphere of the brain believed to be involved in?

A

logic (thinking, tasks, problem-solving, etc.)

117
Q

what is the right hemisphere of the brain believed to be involved in?

A

creativity (emotions, artistic)

118
Q

sensory cortex

A

received info from skin surface and sense organs to make out our senses

119
Q

motor cortex

A

controls voluntary movements

120
Q

hindbrain

A

lower brain at rear base of skill. responsible for reflexive or automatic behaviors

121
Q

forebrain

A

largest part of brain that controls what we think of thoughts to reasons

122
Q

midbrain

A

above the pons, integrates and relays sensory information to the main part of the brain

123
Q

depolarization

A

this occurs when positive ions enter the neuron making it susceptible to fire an action potential

124
Q

refractory period

A

the short period of recharge after an action potential is fired to fire it again

125
Q

threshold

A

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

126
Q

absolute threshold

A

the weakest amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

127
Q

difference threshold

A

the minimum amount of difference needed to detect a change in stimulus 50% of the time

128
Q

signal-detection theory

A

theory that predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise

129
Q

action potential

A

a neural impulse that travels down the axon

130
Q

all-or-none principle

A

the strength of a response of a nerve cell is not dependent upon the strength of the stimulus (it will either fire or it won’t at all)

131
Q

reuptake

A

neurotransmitters that can’t find an area across the synapse to attach to will be reabsorbed by another neuron

132
Q

acetylcholine

A

activates motor neurons and skeletal muscles. too little = alzheimer’s

133
Q

dopamine

A

chemical that contributes to voluntary movements and pleasurable emotions. too little = parkinson’s. too much = schizophrenia

134
Q

endorphins

A

chemical that is a natural pain killer and promotes pain relief

135
Q

serotonin

A

chemical involved in mood, sleep, appetite, and body temp. too little = depression. too much = OCD and mania

136
Q

norepinephrine

A

chemical that affects memory, learning, mood changes. too little = depression

137
Q

bottom-up processing

A

stimulus processing that begins with the sense receptor and works up the brain (seeing then interpreting)

138
Q

top-down processing

A

info is processed by past experiences and recognition to extract meaning

139
Q

olfaction

A

sense of smell

140
Q

gustation

A

sense of taste

141
Q

cocktail party phenomenon

A

focus of attention on selected aspects of the environment while blocking out the rest

142
Q

retinal disparity

A

comparing the information from each eyeball. greater distance between two images = close

143
Q

transduction

A

the conversion of one form of energy into another

144
Q

retina

A

process visual info into neural impulses

145
Q

cornea

A

outer layer. protects eye and bends incoming light rays

146
Q

lens

A

focuses light rays on the retina

147
Q

iris

A

controls the pupil’s size

148
Q

fovea

A

central point, allows us to see color

149
Q

pupil

A

adjusts opening to let in light

150
Q

blind spot

A

point at which there are no rods/cones

151
Q

optic nerve

A

carries neural impulses to the brain

152
Q

rods

A

detect monochrome colors. grants peripheral and night vision

153
Q

cones

A

detects color. grants day-time vision

154
Q

parallel processing

A

the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaenously

155
Q

young-helmholtz theory

A

color theory that we have 3 types of cones in the retina (red, blue, green) and we see colors by mixing those colors

156
Q

opponent process theory

A

color theory that the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs (red-green, yellow-blue, black-white). as one turns on, another turns off

157
Q

afterimage

A

the firing of the cones used after viewing something steadily

158
Q

visual cliff

A

process to tell if a baby has a sense of depth

159
Q

hearing intensity

A

loudness, measured in decibles

160
Q

hearing frequency

A

pitch, a tone’s highness/lowness

161
Q

outer ear

A

sound waves collected. noise ➜ ear canal ➜ eardrum (which vibrates when hit)

162
Q

middle ear

A

transmits and amplifies the vibration hitting the eardrum. hammer (malleus) ➜ anvil (incus) ➜ stirrup (stapes)

163
Q

inner ear

A

changes vibration to a neural impulse. cochlea (membrane w/ fluid that changes vibration to an electrical symbol) ➜ auditory nerve ➜ brain

164
Q

sensory deprivation

A

if one sense is deprived, another will become stronger (ex. blind people have very good hearing)

165
Q

sensory adaptation

A

after a while of constant stimulation, will stop detecting noise (ex. clock ticking eventually is not bothersome anymore)

166
Q

vestibular sense

A

sense of body position and movement, balance

167
Q

perceptual set

A

a mental predisposition to see one thing rather than another

168
Q

what did gestalt discover? the principles of the gestalt theory?

A

that putting individual pieces together results in an organized whole. principles: similarity, continuation, closure, proximity

169
Q

constancy

A

objects with similar size, shape, and brightness, are considered to be a set

170
Q

metacognition

A

ability to think about the way you think (self-evaluation)

171
Q

who is ivan pavlov?

A

the founder of classical conditioning

172
Q

classical conditioning

A

learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. 5 parts: UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR

173
Q

UCS

A

unconditioned stimuli. stimuli that automatically triggers a response

174
Q

UCR

A

unconditioned response. an unlearned natural response to the UCS

175
Q

NS

A

neutral stimulus. stimuli that doesn’t trigger a response

176
Q

CS

A

conditioned stimuli. NS that, after association with the UCS, elicits a certain response

177
Q

CR

A

conditioned response, the learned response to a previously unconditioned response

178
Q

acquisition

A

initial stage of classical conditioning, when association with the NS and the UCS begins. lasts a half a second

179
Q

generalization

A

tendency to respond to a similar stimuli in the same way

180
Q

discrimination

A

the learned ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli

181
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

the reappearance of the CR to the CS

182
Q

extinction

A

the fading of the CR to the CS

183
Q

what did john garcia discover?

A

taste aversion after experimenting radiation on rats

184
Q

taste aversion

A

eating food then feeling ill. believing the food is what caused the illness

185
Q

operant conditioning

A

consequences that follow a behavior will increase/decrease the likelihood of it happening again

186
Q

who is b.f. skinner?

A

the founder of operant conditioning

187
Q

shaping

A

process of gradually training a learned behavior that would not normally occur

188
Q

positive reinforcement

A

adding something pleasant to increase behavior

189
Q

negative reinforcement

A

taking away something unpleasant to increase the behavior

190
Q

positive punishment

A

adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior

191
Q

negative punishment

A

taking away something pleasant to decrease behavior

192
Q

primary reinforcement

A

stimuli that is satisfying without needing to learn it is (food, water)

193
Q

secondary reinforcement

A

stimuli that has acquired power because it is learned to be important (money, grades)

194
Q

continuous reinforcement schedule

A

repeatedly reinforces behavior every time it happens

195
Q

variable ratio (schedule)

A

random number of responses (ex. slot machine)

196
Q

fixed ratio (schedule)

A

after a set number of responses (ex. buy one get one free)

197
Q

variable interval (schedule)

A

after a random amount of time (ex. fishing)

198
Q

fixed interval

A

after a set rate of time (ex. allowance every friday)

199
Q

who is albert bandura and what experiment did he conduct?

A

he created the social learning theory. he conducted the bobo doll experiment

200
Q

explain the bobo doll experiment

A

children watch an adult model’s aggressive behavior towards a toy (bobo doll) by attacking them. then when left alone in a room with the doll, the children attacked it. children who watched an non-aggressive model were subdued and didn’t attack the doll

201
Q

flashbulb memory

A

a clear memory of an emotionally significant event

202
Q

what are the 3 types of memory?

A

episodic, semantic/generic, procedural

203
Q

episodic memory

A

a memory of a specific event (ex. graduation)

204
Q

semantic/generic memory

A

general knowledge that we do not remember acquiring (ex. george washington was the first president of the u.s.)

205
Q

procedural memory

A

memory of how we perform an action (ex. driving)

206
Q

what are the three processes of memory?

A

encoding, storage, retrieval

207
Q

encoding memory

A

processing information into the memory system

208
Q

storage memory

A

maintenance of encoded information over time in the memory

209
Q

retrieval (memory)

A

process of getting information out of memory

210
Q

what are the 3 stages of memory?

A

sensory, short-term/working, long-term

211
Q

sensory memory

A

the immediate initial recording of information that enters through our senses

212
Q

short-term/working memory

A

holds a few items (7 plus or minus 2) briefly (18-20 sec) before the information is stored or forgotten

213
Q

long-term memory

A

storing memory

214
Q

what did hermann ebbingaus do?

A

he pioneered the experimental study of memory. He discovered the forgetting curve and that the more time we spend learning info, the longer we remember it

215
Q

serial position effect

A

tendency to recall the first and last items of a list

216
Q

primary effect

A

tendency to recall the first items of a list

217
Q

recency effect

A

tendency to recall the last terms of list

218
Q

mnemonic devices

A

ways of remembering info by using creative memory techniques

219
Q

chunking

A

putting many numbers into parts

220
Q

iconic memory

A

visual memory

221
Q

echoic memory

A

auditory memory

222
Q

implicit memory

A

memory that does not need to be consciously remembered to be present

223
Q

explicit memory

A

memory used when consciously trying to remember something (ex. what you ate for dinner yesterday)

224
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

forgetting old info

225
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

forgetting new info

226
Q

source amnesia

A

inability to remember who told you something

227
Q

infantile amnesia

A

inability to anything before age of 3

228
Q

recall

A

retrieval of info already learned (filling blank parts in tests)

229
Q

recognition

A

identifying info you already learned (multiple choice)

230
Q

proactive interference

A

old info interferes with new info

231
Q

retroactive interference

A

new info interferes with old info

232
Q

repression

A

pushing a memory to the back of the mind

233
Q

who is abraham maslow and what did he believe?

A

he’s a humanistic psychologist who believed that basic needs need to be met before pursuing self-actualization needs

234
Q

maslow’s hierarchy of needs (bottom to top)

A

physiological needs (food, water) ➜ safety needs (security, shelter) ➜ belonging needs (friends, family) ➜ esteem needs achievement) ➜ self-actualization

ap psychology (15 decks)

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