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Psychology > AP psychology chapter 2 > Flashcards

AP psychology chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Hindsight bias

A

After hearing about something, people believed they knew it all along.

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2
Q

Applied research

A

Research that has real, practical applications, e.g testing efficacy of smoking addiction programs.

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3
Q

Basic research

A

Research about something interesting but with no real world application, used as basis for applied research (e.g studying how people form attitudes about others.

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4
Q

Valid

A

The research is accurate, represents/measures what the researcher set out to measure.

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5
Q

Reliable

A

The research is internally consistent.

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6
Q

Standardized

A

Tests produce the same results after many administrations.

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7
Q

Sample

A

A group of participants.

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8
Q

Sampling

A

Decides who or what to study to investigate a hypothesis. Must identify population first.

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9
Q

Population

A

Anyone or anything that could have been selected.

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10
Q

Theory

A

Aims to explain a phenomenon, used to generate a testable hypothesis.

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11
Q

Operational definition

A

The way a variable is measured (e.g surveys, self report inventories, kilometres, etc.

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12
Q

Random sampling

A

Selecting random subjects from all possible participants, ensures sample is a representative of the general population and that all have an equal chance of being selected.

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13
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Each member of the larger population is categorized into another subset based on characteristics. For example, age, gender. Allows researcher to ensure that the sample accurately represents the population on a specific criteria.

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14
Q

Representative sample

A

A sample that accurately represents the population on a specific criteria. E.g in a population with 200 Chinese, 500 African Americans, and 300 latinos, a representative sample would in life 20 Chinese, 50 African Americans, and 30 latinos.

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15
Q

Lab experiments

A

Conducted in labs - highly controlled environments. Conditions are controlled.

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16
Q

Field experiments

A

Conducted out in the world, more realistic.

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17
Q

Confounding variables

A

An unmeasured variable that may cause a difference between the experimental conditions and control conditions; will likely affect the independent variable.

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18
Q

Participant-relevant confounding variables

A

Any differences amongst participants that may skew results, e.g education; random assignment limits this.

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19
Q

Situation relavent confounding variables

A

Differences in experimental environment that can impact results, e.g time of day; limited by group matching.

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20
Q

Assignment

A

Comes after sampling, participants, after being chosen, are put into either the experimental or control group.

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21
Q

Random assignment

A

Each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group, limits participant relevant founding variables.

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22
Q

Group matching

A

Could be used to make sure the 2 similar groups are similar on some criteria (such as sex, age, iq), minimizes situation relavent variables.

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23
Q

Experimenter bias

A

A type of situation relavent confounding variable when the researcher subconsciously treats participants differently to support their hypothesis.

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24
Q

Double-blind procedure

A

Prevents experimenter bias, in which neither researchers nor participants can interact/affect outcome of research.

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25
Q

Single-blind procedure

A

Only the participants don’t know which group they are in, minimizes affects of demand characteristics and response/participant bias.

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26
Q

Response or participant biases

A

Tendency for participants to consciously or unconsciously respond/behave in a certain way. One kind is social desirability.

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27
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Cues about the purpose of the study, which may influence participant responses.

28
Q

Social desirability

A

The tendency for participants to give answers that reflect well on themselves.

29
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

When participants try to change or improve their behaviour because they know it is being evaluated or studied.

30
Q

Placebo method

A

A method of control. Allows researchers to separate psychological effects of drugs from physiological.

31
Q

Counterbalancing

A

Participants can be their own control group.

32
Q

Correlation method

A

Expressed a relationship between two variables without ascribing a cause.

33
Q

Positive correlation

A

The presence of something predicts the presence of something else.

34
Q

Negative correlation

A

The presence of something predicts the absence of something else.

35
Q

Ex Post facto study

A

When an investigation occurs after a fact has occurred.

36
Q

Survey method

A

Asks participants to fill out surveys, can only prove a correlation, no independent or dependant variables, lots of confounding variables.

37
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Observed participants in natural settings with no interaction, obtains more realistic image of participant behaviour, no control.

38
Q

Case study method

A

Gets a fuller and more detailed picture of one of a small group of participants. Findings can’t be generalized, often used by clinical psychologists.

39
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Describes a set of data using methods like frequency distribution, states facts and proven outcomes from a population

40
Q

Frequency distribution

A

A representation in either graph or table form that displays the number of observations within a given interval. Has two types: frequency polygons or histograms, y is frequency, x is whatever is being graphed.

41
Q

Frequency polygons

A

Line graphs.

42
Q

Histograms

A

Bar graphs.

43
Q

Measures of central tendency

A

Attempts to mark the center of distribution, mean, median, and mode (scores that appear the most).

44
Q

Outliers

A

Extreme scores that skew distribution.

45
Q

Positive skew

A

More low scores than high, the mean is higher than the median, median is towards the left.

46
Q

Negative skew

A

More high scores than low, the median is higher than the mean, median is towards the right.

47
Q

Measures of variability

A

Other types of statistical measures, range, standard deviation, variance.

48
Q

Range

A

High to lowest score.

49
Q

Variance/standard deviation

A

The average distance of any score from the mean; the higher they are, the more spread out the distribution. Standard deviation is sqrt2 of variance.

50
Q

Measures of variability

A

Tries to show the diversity of distribution.

51
Q

z-score

A

Distance of any score from the mean in units of standard deviation. Calculated using z = (x-y)/σ (x = score, y = mean, σ = standard deviation).

52
Q

Normal curve

A

A theoretical bell-shaped curve for which the area under the curve between any 2 z-scores has been predetermined. Around 68% of scores in a normal distribution fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean (both positive and negative), 95% in 2 deviations, and 99% in 3 deviations.

53
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

Determines strength of correlation. -1 = perfect negative correlation. 0 = no correlation.

54
Q

Scatter plot

A

Graphs correlations.

55
Q

Line of best fit/regression line

A

A line drawn that minimizes the distance of all the points in a scatter plot.

56
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Analyze samplings to see if they can be applied to everyone in a larger population.

57
Q

Sampling error

A

Occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire population of data.

58
Q

Inferential statistics tests

A

t-tests, chi-squares, and ANOVAs, which all yield a p-value.

59
Q

p-value

A

The probability of differences due to change, represents the significance of findings.

60
Q

Statistical significance

A

A p-value of 0.05 is the cutoff for statistically significant results, which means that there is a 5% chance that the results occurred due to chance, and can also be computed for correlation coefficient.

61
Q

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A

Any research must first be proposed to the IRB, which checks for ethical violations and procedural errors.

62
Q

Coercion

A

No coercion for human participants, only volunteers.

63
Q

Informed consent

A

Doesn’t mean no deception, but deception must be similar to actual experiment.

64
Q

Anonymity/confidentiality

A

Anonymity preferred.

65
Q

Debriefing

A

After, participants should be told of the purpose of the study as well as the ways to get results.

Psychology (12 decks)

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