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APBIO > ap exam big idea: biological systems > Flashcards

ap exam big idea: biological systems Flashcards

1
Q

Organic compounds

A

Any compounds with carbon

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2
Q

chemical components of living matter

A

Nitrogen, carbine, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur

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3
Q

hydrophillic

A

Compounds that easily dissolve In water, “water loving”q

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4
Q

hydrophobic

A

Compounds that do not dissolve in water

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5
Q

hydrolisis

A

Decomposition of something in the presence of water

NaCl(s)-> Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

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6
Q

Dehydration synthesus

A

Opposite reaction of hydrolysis, ut releases water molecules and the difference in charge holds atoms together

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7
Q

Oxidation reduction reactions

A

Gain or loss of electrons - MECHANISM FOR ENERGY TRANSFER IN BIOLOGY

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8
Q

anabolism

A

Building complex materials out of simple substances

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9
Q

catabolism

A

Breaking down complex materials into simple substances (like oxidation)

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10
Q

exergonic reactions

A

release energy

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11
Q

endergonic reactions

A

Use up energy

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12
Q

Capillary action

A

Driven by the polarity of water - water will climb up a tube or move through spaces of material until gravity defeats it. Helpful in allowing water to go up roots

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13
Q

Amino groups

A

Forms peptide bonds between amino acids

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14
Q

carbonyl

A

Highly reactive carbonyl groups, highly reactive carbon near carbonyl group, INTERMEDIARY INREACTIONS

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15
Q

Carboxyl group

A

Weak acids that can donate a H+ ion to different reactions

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16
Q

hydroxyl group

A

Makes compounds soluble in water

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17
Q

Phosphate group

A

Stores and transfers energy

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18
Q

sulfhyrdryl

A

Stabilizes protein structure

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19
Q

prokaryotes

A

Plasma membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, DNA, ribosomes, microtubules, often have flagella

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20
Q

eukaryotes

A

contain membrane bound organelles

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21
Q

nucleus

A

Contains DNA in form of chromosomes, selective protein permeable membrane,

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22
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A 
Rough er (has ribosomes on the outside): protein syntheis
Smooth ER: lipid synthesis and detoxification
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23
Q

peroxisomes

A

Catalyze reactions that produce and degrade peroxide. Break fats into smaller molecules and help detoxify compounds in liver

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24
Q

mitochondria

A

Powerhouse of the cell - location of cellular respiration

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25
Q

grana

A

Stacks of thylakoids, membrain sacks inside the chloroplats

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26
Q

stroma

A

Fluid that surrounds gran inside the chloroplasts

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27
Q

Membranes

A

Composed mostly of lipids so they are hydrophobic, usually have a hydrophilic phospholipids on one end which goes on the center of the membrane (phospholipid bilayer).
Membranes have proteins, carbohydrate and sterols in them.

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28
Q

Protein functions in membranes

A

Transport molecules, receptor sites, surface enzymes, cell recognition, cell adhesion, cell, signaling

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29
Q

carbohydrate functions in membranes

A

Cell recognition and immune response

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30
Q

Cholesterol function in membranes

A

Control fluidity of membranes

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31
Q

Active transport

A

Forcing molecules to move against the concentration gradient - REQUIRES USE OF ATP

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32
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Diffusion through carrier proteins - DOES NOT require energy

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33
Q

glycocalyx

A

Protein and carbohydrate rich coating on call surface

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34
Q

hypertonic

A

High in solute, cells lose

35
Q

hypotonic

A

Low in solute, cells take on water

36
Q

Isotonic

A

Identical solute concentration

37
Q

Electrochemical gradient

A

Determines what moves in and out of membranes when passive transport channels are open

38
Q

Na+-K+ ATPase Pumpse

A

Example of active transport, the pump uses ATP to pull 2 k+ potassium ions into a cell and send 3 Na+ sodium ions out. (Called antiport) inside of the cell remains NEGATIVE because it pumps out three positives for every two it brings in

39
Q

Ca++ ATPase pumps

A

Actively transport calcium from cytoplasm into ER. Sets up a strong calcium gradient that can be used for muscle contractions etc. ER muscle cells release the calcium when polarized by a nerve impulse, flooding the cytoplasm with Ca++ and causing contraction of cell (this is a uniport pump)

40
Q

Water potential

A

Negative water potential demonstrates that the water is likely to diffuse from a place of high water potential to a place of low water potential

41
Q

Photosynthesis reaction

A

6CO2 + 12H2O + light -> C6H12O6+ 6O2 + 6H2O

42
Q

Photosynthesis light reaction basics

A

Light energy is harnessed to produce energy in the form of ATP and NADPH through photophosphorylation
MAKES ENERGY

43
Q

Photosynthesis dark reaction (Calvin cycle)

A

Complete carbon fixation which uses CO2 from the environment and incorporates it into sugars using reduction of ATP and NADPH
MAKES SUGARS

44
Q

c3 plants

A

Plants whose initial products of C fixation are two three carbon molecules synthesized using rubisco

45
Q

c4 plants

A

CO2 is fixed into a four carbon molecule by the intermediate enzyme pyruvic acid and releases a CO2 molecule
Advantage in hot environments

46
Q

CAM plants

A

Collect CO2 at night because its cooler outside

Example; cacti

47
Q

Light reaction

A

Chlorophyll captures light energy to begin photosynthesis, light energy excites electrons which then jump to the reaction center where they move to the ETC to generate chemical energy as ATP or NADPH.

48
Q

Cyclic photoposphorylation

A

Occurs in photosystem I to create ATP
Electrons move from reaction center through ETC back to the SAME reaction center.
Does NOT produce oxygen or NADPH

49
Q

Non cyclic photoposphorylation

A

Starts in Photosystem II
Electrons move from reaction center to ETC and then MOVE to photosystem I. Lost electrons are replaced by breaking down water, which produces oxygen . the electrons that go to photosystem I are used to produce NADPH

50
Q

ETC

A

As electrons go through the electron transport chain, protons are pumped out of the Strom into the thylakoid membranes creating a proton gradient. Protons flow through the Stroma into an ATP synthase to produce ATP which is then used in the Calvin cycle

51
Q

Calvin cycle

A

NADPH provides the power to fix CO2 from the air into carbohydrates.
CO2 combines with RuBP sugar and is catalyzed to become a six carbon compound which is then split into two three carbon compounds. That compound is phosphorylated by ATP and reduced by NADPH to become PGAL, which can be used to synthesise glucose etc

52
Q

Cellular respiration

A
  • aerobic
  • yields 36-38 ATP
  • five stages: glycolysis, fermentation, pyruvate decarbocylation, citric acid cycle, ETC
53
Q

fermentation

A

Anaerobic cellular respiration, glycolysis breaks down glucose 2ATP 2NAD+ into 2pyruvate 2ADP 4ATP 2H+ and 2H2O, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid or ethanol

54
Q

step1: glycolysis

A

Oxidativee break down of glucose into two molecules of private, ATP and the reduction of NAD+ into NADH
2ATP used, 4 generated - net: 2
2NADH produced per glucose molecule

55
Q

Glycolysis net reaction

A

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2 NADP+ -> 2 private +2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ +2H2O

56
Q

step 2: pyruvate decarboxylation

A

Pyruvate is transported from cytoplasm into mitochondrial matrix where it loses a CO2 and the remaining acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA

57
Q

step 3: Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle)

A

Begins when two molecules of acetyl CoA combine with oxaloaxetate to form citrate, after many reactions 2 CO2 are released and oxaloaxetate is regenerated and enters back into the cycle

Through this process, 4CO2, 6NADH, 2FADH2, 2ATP 4H+ and 2CoA are released

58
Q

Step 4: electron transport chain

A

Located in mitochondrial membrane.
Oxidative phosphorylation produces ATP when electrons are transferred from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen by carrier molecules. When electrons are transferred across carriers, free energy is released hitch is used to form ATP
Carriers are reduced when they accept electrons and oxidized when they pass them on to the next
o2 is the final electron acceptors and picks up hydrogen along with electrons to form water

59
Q

cyandide

A

Poison which blocks transfer of electrons and prevents cellular respiration

60
Q

chemiosmosis

A

Used by cells to generate ATP by moving H+ ions across a membrane down a concentration gradient

61
Q

osmoregulation

A

matinence of water and solute balance (part of homeostasis)

62
Q

Homeostasis organs

A

Kidneys, liver, large intestine, skin

63
Q

thermoregulation

A

Epinephrine : released by adrenal glands to increase metabolic rate and raise temperature

64
Q

Positive feedback

A

Positive feedback mechanisms increase the output of a stimulus that has already been activated - considered unstable because they can lose control of the cycle

65
Q

Negative feedback

A

As more feedback is received, it causes the process to change in the opposite direction. Allows stability by reducing fluctuations
Ex: sweat in humans

66
Q

Nonspecific immune system

A

Fights off disease in general, not specific pathogens
Includes skin and mucus membranes
Mucus membranes have lysosomes that destroy bacterial cell walls

67
Q

Specific immune system

A

Attacks very specific diseases using protein to protein interaction and is responsible for immunity to certain infections

68
Q

macrophages

A

White blood cells that are part of the nonspecific immune system, they engulf foreign material (phagocytosis)

69
Q

histamines

A

Released by basophils and mast cells, they cause capillaries to become “leaky” so that macrophages ad neutrophils can more easily reach the site of infection

70
Q

lymphocytes

A

Major specific immune system defense

b cells or t cells

71
Q

t cells

A

BASIC: THEIR JOB IS TO KILL PATHOGENS
Helper t: mediators between b cells and macrophages
cytotoxic: defense against viruses
Suppressor: control the immune response so it doesn’t grow out of control

72
Q

b cells

A

BASIC: THEIR JOB IS TO SECRETE ANTIBODIES
Trained to have receptors that recognize specific set of foreign antigens - almost every one is capable of responding to a slightly different antigen
They become activated if tey come into contact with the cells that it have the antigen that goes with the antibody they carry

73
Q

paratope

A

Where antibodies can bind to foreign proteins

74
Q

neutrilization

A

When antibodies like antigen molecules, causing them to get stuck together and clump large amount of pathogens

75
Q

precipitation

A

Antibodies bind to antigens aNd rapidly destroys them using phageocytosis

76
Q

Lag period

A

Period in after exposure to pathogens, but before enough antibodies have been secreted

77
Q

Memory cells

A

Antigen specific cells that remain after a primary infection

78
Q

PH scale

A

Each step on PH scale represents a 10 fold addition of H+ ions

79
Q

Free energy change

A

If the free energy change is greater than zero the reaction is non spontaneous
If the free energy change is less than zero the reaction is spontaneous
If its zero, it is at equilibrium

80
Q

peroxisomes

A

contain oxidative enzymes to break down fats and detoxify harmful chemicals

81
Q

ATPase

A

Enzymes that turn ATP into ADP and drive chemical ion pumps that maintain ion concentration across cell membrane

82
Q

Limiting factors of the dark reaction

A

Temperature, light, carbon dioxide

83
Q

stomata

A

regulate the entrance of CO2 into a plamt

84
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

Takes place across the inner mitochondrial membrane

APBIO (13 decks)

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