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AP Biology > Animal Structure And Function > Flashcards

Animal Structure And Function Flashcards

1
Q

Animal Systems

A
  • Digestive
  • Respiratory
  • Circulatory
  • Immune
  • Excretory
  • Nervous
  • Musculoskeletal
  • Endocrine
  • Reproductive
  • Morphogenesis/Development
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2
Q

Intracellular Digestion

A

Digestion occurring within food vacuoles

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3
Q

Extracellular Digestion

A

Digestion occurring within a gastrovascular cavity

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4
Q

Gut Regions

A
  • Mouth
  • Esophagus
  • Crop (Storage Organ in some species)
  • Stomach
  • Intestine
  • Rectum
  • Anus
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5
Q

Gut Regions Unique to Humans

A
  • Small Intestine
  • Large Intestine
  • Accessory Organs
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6
Q

Oral Cavity

A

The mouth

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7
Q

Mastication/Mechanical Digestion

A

The chewing, softening, and breaking up of food

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8
Q

Salivary Glands

A

Produces saliva

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9
Q

Saliva

A

Is filled with the enzyme salivary amylase and is found in the mouth

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10
Q

Salivary Amylase

A

Enzyme that begins the chemical breakdown of starch into maltose

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11
Q

Bolus

A

A ball of chewed up food

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12
Q

Peristalsis

A

Wavelike motion that moves food through the esophagus

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13
Q

Gastric Juices

A

Contain digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid (HCl)

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14
Q

Pepsin

A

Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides

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15
Q

Chyme

A

Partially digested food that enters the small intestine

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16
Q

Pyloric Sphincter

A

A passage that chyme takes to get into the small intestine

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17
Q

Pancreas

A

Secretes trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase, and pancreatic amylase into the small intestine

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18
Q

Trypsin and Chymotrypsin

A

Break down proteins into dipeptides

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19
Q

Pancreatic Lipase

A

Breaks down lipids into fatty acids and gylcerol

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20
Q

Pancreatic Amylase

A

Breaks down starch into disaccharides

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21
Q

Pancreatic Duct

A

The passage enzymes take to enter the small intestine

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22
Q

Bile

A

An emulsifier made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder

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23
Q

Emulsifier

A

A substance that mechanically breaks up fats into smaller fat droplets

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24
Q

Villi and Microvilli

A

Folds that increase the surface area of the small intestine and absorb food particles

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25
Q

Lacteals

A

Lymph vessels in the villi that absorb fatty acids

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26
Q

Gastrin

A

An enzyme that stimulates stomach cells to produce gastric juices

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27
Q

Secretin

A

An enzyme that stimulates the pancreas to produce bicarbonate and digestive enzymes

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28
Q

Cholecystokinin

A

An enzyme that stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and the release of bile

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29
Q

Vitamin K

A

An essential vitamin that is provided by bacteria during digestion

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30
Q

Feces

A

Leftover digested food that moves into the rectum and out the anus

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31
Q

Trachae

A

Tubes that allow for passage of air in certain organisms

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32
Q

Spiracles

A

Tubes that air enters into

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33
Q

Lungs and Gills

A

Respiratory structures in most vertebrates

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34
Q

Pharynx

A

The throat

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35
Q

Larynx

A

The voice box

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36
Q

Epiglottis

A

Covers the trachea and prevents food from going down the wrong pipe

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37
Q

Left Bronchus and Right Bronchus

A

Branches that service the lungs

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38
Q

Bronchiole

A

Smaller tubes found in throughout the lungs

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39
Q

Alveolus

A

Sacs at the end of each bronchiole that enable the lungs to have a high surface area for gas exchange

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40
Q

Capillary

A

Hold carbon dioxide and accept oxygen from the alveolus and then send carbon dioxide to the alveolus and branch off from arterioles

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41
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Transports 97% of the oxygen in your blood while the other 3% is dissolved in the plasma

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42
Q

Plasma

A

Fluid of the blood

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43
Q

Bicarbonate Ions (H2CO3)

A

Form when CO2 combines with water in red blood cells

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44
Q

Inspiration

A

Taking in oxygen by increasing the volume of your lungs, allowing air to rush in

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45
Q

Expiration

A

Letting carbon dioxide out of your lungs by breathing out

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46
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Control an organism’s respiratory rate

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47
Q

Diaphragm

A

Muscle between ribs and lungs that contract to push rib cage outwards and allow air to enter the lungs

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48
Q

Open Circulatory System

A

Blood is carried by open ended blood vessels that spill blood into the body cavity

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49
Q

Sinuses

A

Internal cavities

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50
Q

Closed Circulatory System

A

Blood flows continuously through a network of blood vessels

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51
Q

Chambers of the Heart

A
  • Right Atrium
  • Right Ventricle
  • Left Atrium
  • Left Ventricle
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52
Q

Systemic Circulation

A

Blood leaves the left ventricle and tours the body before returning to the heart

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53
Q

Aortic Semilunar Valve

A

Passage that blood takes to leave the heart and into the aorta

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54
Q

Aorta

A

Largest artery in the body

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55
Q

Arterioles

A

Smaller vessels that branch off of arteries

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56
Q

Deoxygenated

A

When blood is depleted of oxygen

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57
Q

Venules

A

Passages that direct blood into the veins

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58
Q

Veins

A

Carry blood towards the heart

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59
Q

Superior Vena Cave and Inferior Vena Cava

A

Allow blood to enter the heart

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60
Q

Right Atrioventricular Valve (Tricuspid)

A

Allows blood to travel from the right atrium to the right ventricle

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61
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A

Blood leaving the heart to go towards the lungs

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62
Q

Pulmonary Semilunar Valve

A

Passage that blood takes to leave the right ventricle

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63
Q

Pulmonary Artery

A

Blood enters this after leaving the right ventricle

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64
Q

Oxygenated

A

Blood is filled with blood within the lungs

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65
Q

Pulmonary Veins

A

Direct blood back towards the heart and the left atrium of the heart

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66
Q

Left Atrioventricular Valve (Bicuspid/Mitral Valve)

A

Passage that allows blood to enter the left ventricle of the heart

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67
Q

Thermoregulation

A

The maintenance of a fairly stable body temperature regardless of external conditions

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68
Q

Endotherms

A

Animals that regulate their internal temperature

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69
Q

Counter Current Exchange

A

Arteries leaving with warm blood help heat the cold blood heading back to the heart through the veins

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70
Q

Ectotherms

A

Animals that gain and lose heat based on their current environmental conditions

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71
Q

Sinoatrial (SA) Node

A

The tissue where the rhythmic beating of the heart begins

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72
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) Node

A

The impulse from the SA Node is carried to this node

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73
Q

Bundle of His and Purkinje Fibers

A

The action potential from the AV Node is carried to both of these and causes your heart to contract

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74
Q

Systole

A

The part of the beating cycle in which contraction occurs

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75
Q

Diastole

A

The part of the beating cycle in which relaxation occurs

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76
Q

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

A

Oxygen carrying cells within the body

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77
Q

White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)

A

Fight infection against foreign organisms

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78
Q

Platelets

A

Fragments that cause blood to clot

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79
Q

Bone Marrow

A

Where all blood cells are made and is found in the center of the bone

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80
Q

Blood Groups

A
  • A
  • B
  • AB
  • O
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81
Q

Antibodies

A

An immune substance that will bind and destroy foreign bodies

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82
Q

Rh Factors

A

Antigens found on blood cells (Rh+ has Rh Factors)

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83
Q

Lymphatic System

A

A network of vessels that conduct lymph throughout the body

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84
Q

Lymph

A

A clear, watery fluid formed from interstitial fluid

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85
Q

Lymph Node

A

A mass of tissue found along the course of a lymph vessel that contain lymphocytes

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86
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Multiply rapidly when they come into contact with an antigen or foreign substance and assist in fighting off infection

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87
Q

Antigen

A

Foreign substance recognized by the immune system

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88
Q

Immune System

A

A system of specialized cells that help fight off foreign organisms and prevent infection

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89
Q

Phagocytes

A

Engulf antigens

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90
Q

Complement Proteins

A

Lyse the cell wall of the antigen

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91
Q

Interferons

A

Inhibit viral replication and activate surrounding cells that have antiviral actions

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92
Q

Inflammatory Response

A

A series of events in response to antigen invasion or physical injury

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93
Q

Pathogen

A

A disease causing agent

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94
Q

Cell-Mediated Immunity

A

Immunity that comes from cells being able to recognize and destroy foreign bodies

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95
Q

Major Histocompatability Complex (MHC)

A

Markers that distinguish between self and foreign cells

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96
Q

Memory T and B Cells

A

Recognize pathogens they have encountered before and attack them

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97
Q

Helper T Cells

A

Activate B Cells and other T-Cells in response to infected cells

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98
Q

Cytotoxic T Cells

A

Recognize and kill infected cells

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99
Q

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

A

Interferes with the body’s immune system by destroying all helper T Cells

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100
Q

Nitrogenous Wastes

A

Wastes that contain nitrogen

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101
Q

Ammonia (NH3)

A

A harmful substance that is a byproduct of protein breakdown

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102
Q

Uric Acid and Urea

A

Animals convert ammonia to these substances to easily get rid of them from their bodies

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103
Q

Nephridia

A

Excretory organ found within earthworms

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104
Q

Malpighian Tubes

A

Excretory organ found in arthropods

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105
Q

Kidney

A

Organ that regulates excretion

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106
Q

Nephrons

A

The functional units that make up the kidney

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107
Q

Regions of a Nephron

A
  • Bowman’s Capsule
  • Proximal Convoluted Tubule
  • Loop of Henle
  • Distal Convoluted Tubule
  • Collecting Duct
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108
Q

Renal Cortex

A

Outer section of the kidney that contains the Bowman’s Capsule and the Proximal Convoluted Tubules

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109
Q

Renal Medulla

A

Inner section of the kidney that contains the Loop of Henle and Distal Convoluted Tubules

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110
Q

Bowman’s Capsule

A

Site where blood enters the nephron

111
Q

Renal Artery

A

Leads to the kidney and branches into arterioles and then capillaries

112
Q

Glomerulus

A

A ball of capillaries that sit in the Bowman’s Capsule

113
Q

Filtrate

A

Plasma that is forced from the capillaries and into the Bowman’s Capsule

114
Q

Urine

A

Is produced as the filtrate moves through the distal convoluted tubules and into the collecting duct

115
Q

Ureters

A

Passages that carry urine to the bladder

116
Q

Bladder

A

Stores urine

117
Q

Urethra

A

Excretes urine from the bladder

118
Q

Production of Urine

A
  • Filtration
  • Reabsorption
  • Secretion
119
Q

Filtration

A

Blood is filtered as it passes through glomerulus to the Bowman’s Capsule

120
Q

Reabsorption

A

As the filtrate moves through the proximal convoluted tubule, some materials are reabsorbed (Small ions and solutes)

121
Q

Peritubular Capillary

A

Surround proximal convoluted tubule and absorbs small ions and solutes

122
Q

Secretion

A

As the filtrate moves through the convoluted tubules, some substances (H+, K, NH3) are secreted from the capillaries into the tubules

123
Q

Vasopressin/Antidiuretic Hormone

A

Allows water to be reabsorbed from the collecting duct and helps your body retain water by concentrating urine

124
Q

Aldosterone

A

Responsible for regulating sodium reabsorption at the distal convoluted tubule

125
Q

Skin

A

Excretory organ that gets rid of excess salt and water from the body

126
Q

Layers of the Skin

A
  • Epidermis
  • Dermis
  • Subcutaneous Tissue (Hyperdermis)
127
Q

Stratum Corneum

A

Layer of dead cells that covers the epidermis

128
Q

Nerve Net

A

Network of nerve cells found in simple organisms such as a hydra

129
Q

Ganglia

A

Clumps of nerve cells found in semi-complex organisms

130
Q

Neurons

A

Specialized cells found in complex organisms

131
Q

Parts of a Neuron

A
  • Cell Body
  • Dendrite
  • Axon
132
Q

Cell Body

A

Contains the nucleus and organelles for the neuron

133
Q

Dendrites

A

Short extensions of the cell body that receive stimuli

134
Q

Axon

A

A long slender extension that transmits an impulse from the cell body to a neuron or organ

135
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

Receive impulses from the environment and bring them to the body

136
Q

Motor/Effector Neuron

A

Transmits impulses to muscles or glands to produce a response

137
Q

Interneurons

A

The links between sensory and motor neurons

138
Q

Polarized

A

When the neuron membrane inside the cell has a negative membrane potential

139
Q

Threshold

A

The minimum amount of stimulus a neuron needs to respond

140
Q

Action Potential

A

A change in the membrane potential that produces a nerve impulse

141
Q

All-or-None Response

A

Action potential will either occur or not occur, but will never stop mid fire

142
Q

Depolarization

A

The inner membrane potential of the neuron becomes more positive due to the rush of Na+ ions

143
Q

Repolarization

A

The inner membrane potential of the neuron returns to its original state by pumping in K+ ions and out Na+ ions

144
Q

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A

Protein that helps polarize and depolarize the membrane in order to pass along a signal

145
Q

Refractory Period

A

The period of time after an action potential has occurred

146
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Carries a stimulus to another neuron and continues the pathway

147
Q

Axon Bulb

A

End of the axon

148
Q

Synapse

A

The space in between two neurons

149
Q

Acetlycholine

A

A neurotransmitter that can stimulate muscles to contract or inhibit postsynaptic potential

150
Q

Acetylcholinesterase

A

The enzyme that breaks down extra acetlycholine that is left in the synaptic cleft

151
Q

Norepinepherine

A

Neurotransmitter that is released between neurons within the CNS

152
Q

GABA

A

Secreted in the CNS and acts as an inhibitor

153
Q

Schwann Cells

A

Supporting cells that wrap around the axon and produce myelin sheathes

154
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Insulates the axon

155
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Exposed regions of the axon in between the myelin sheathes

156
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

Impulse that jumps from node to node

157
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS)

A

Includes the neurons in the brain and spinal cord

158
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

Includes the neurons throughout the body

159
Q

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

A

Controls voluntary activities

160
Q

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A

Controls involuntary activities

161
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

Controls the fight or flight response

162
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

Calms the organism down after the adrenaline is no longer needed

163
Q

Cerebrum

A

Controls all voluntary activities; receives and interprets sensory information; largest part of the human brain

164
Q

Cerebellum

A

Coordinates muscle activity and refinement of movement

165
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Regulates homeostasis and secretes hormones; regulates pituitary gland

166
Q

Medulla

A

Controls involuntary actions such as breathing, swallowing, heartbeat, and respiration

167
Q

Pons

A

Connects parts of the brain with one another and contains respiratory center

168
Q

Midbrain

A

Center for visual and auditory reflexes

169
Q

Thalamus

A

Main sensory relay center for conducting information between the spinal cord and cerebrum

170
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

The outer gray matter of the cerebrym

171
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

A thick band of nerve fibers of the white matter that allow the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum to communicate

172
Q

Exoskeleton

A

A hard covering or shell on the outside of an organism

173
Q

Endoskeleton

A

Entire skeletal system is in the inside of the body

174
Q

Cartilage

A

Found during embryonic development and in the ears and nose, lacks nerves and blood vessels

175
Q

Bone

A

Replaces cartilage and contains nerves and blood vessels

176
Q

Substances That Make Up Bone

A
  • Collagen

- Calcium Salts

177
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Bone-building cells

178
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Bone-breaking cells

179
Q

Ligaments

A

Tough connective tissues that hold joints together

180
Q

Joints

A

Hold bones together

181
Q

Tendons

A

Attach muscles to bones

182
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A

Control voluntary movements

183
Q

Striations

A

Stripes found in the skeletal muscle

184
Q

Muscle Bundles

A

Make up muscles

185
Q

Muscle Fascicles

A

Subdivisions of muscle bundles

186
Q

Muscle Fiber Cells

A

Found within each muscle fascicle

187
Q

Myofibrils

A

Found within each muscle fiber

188
Q

Sacromeres

A

Contractile units found in myofibrils

189
Q

Main Protein Filaments in Muscles

A
  • Actin

- Myosin

190
Q

Sarcoplamsic Reticulum

A

Releases calcium ions into the muscle cell

191
Q

Smooth Muscles

A

Are less organized than skeletal muscles and are found throughout the body

192
Q

Cardiac Muscles

A

Specific muscles found in the heart

193
Q

Intercalate Discs

A

Hold cardiac muscles together

194
Q

Endocrine Gland

A

Produces hormones

195
Q

Ecdysone

A

Hormone that promotes molting and the metamorphosis of a larva to a butterfly

196
Q

Juvinile Hormone

A

Causes larvae to retain their characteristics

197
Q

Pheromones

A

Help animals communicate in the same species and attract the opposite sex

198
Q

Target Cells

A

Cells the hormone will affect

199
Q

Negative Feedback System

A

Hormones will signal the endocrine gland to halt production if there is an excess

200
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

Releases hormones that reach other glands and stimulate them to release their own hormones

201
Q

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

A
  • Growth Hormone (GH)
  • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
  • Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
  • Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
  • Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
  • Prolactin
202
Q

Growth Hormone (GH)

A

Stimulates growth throughout the body, targeting bones and muscles

203
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and minearalocorticoids

204
Q

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

A

Stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroxine

205
Q

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

A

Stimulates the follicle to grow in females, and spermatogenesis in males

206
Q

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

A

Causes the release of the ovum during the menstrual cycle in females and testosterone in males

207
Q

Prolactin

A

Stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk

208
Q

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

A
  • Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin

- Oxytocin

209
Q

Oxytocin

A

Stimulates contractions of uterus and ducts of mammary glands

210
Q

Pancreas Hormones

A
  • Glucagon

- Insulin

211
Q

Islets of Langerhans

A

Site where insulin and glucagon are produced

212
Q

Glucagon

A

Stimulates the liver to release glucose when blood sugar levels are low

213
Q

Insulin

A

Stimulates the liver to take in glucose when blood sugar levels are high

214
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

Target the liver and promote the release of glucose

215
Q

Mineralocorticoids

A

Target the kidney and promote the retention of water

216
Q

Epinepherine

A

Initiates the flight or fight response

217
Q

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

A
  • Glucocorticoids

- Mineralocorticoids

218
Q

Adrenal Medulla Hormones

A
  • Epinepherine

- Norepinepherine

219
Q

Thyroid Gland

A

Target of TSH and found in the neck

220
Q

Thyroxine

A

Responsible for regulating the metabolic rate in body tissues

221
Q

Hyperthyroidism

A

Occurs in individuals who regularly release too much thyroxine

222
Q

Hypothyroidism

A

Occurs in individuals who release too little thyroxine

223
Q

Calcitonin

A

Decreases blood concentration of calcium by concentrating it into bones

224
Q

Parathyroid

A

Four pea shaped organs on the thyroid and secrete parathyroid hormone

225
Q

Parathyroid Hormone

A

Increases blood calcium levels by releasing calcium from bones

226
Q

Bone Remodeling

A

The process of breaking down or building bones to release or store calcium

227
Q

Sex Hormones

A
  • Testosterone
  • Estrogen
  • Progesterone
228
Q

Estrogen and Progesterone

A

Regulate the menstrual cycle

229
Q

Testosterone

A

Promotes spermatogenesis

230
Q

Cyclic Amp (cAMP)

A

Acts as a secondary messenger and triggers various enzymes in various target cells

231
Q

Ova

A

Female gametes

232
Q

Follicular Phase

A

Period in which the follicle grows

233
Q

Luteal Surge

A

Release of LH

234
Q

Ovulation

A

Release of the follicle from the ovary

235
Q

Fallopian Tube/Oviduct

A

Carries the ovum to the uterus

236
Q

Endometrium

A

Walls of the uterus

237
Q

Corpus Luteum

A

Ruptured follicle that releases estrogen and progesterone to dilate blood vessels and thicken the endometrium

238
Q

Menstruation

A

The shedding and disposal of the endometrium

239
Q

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)

A

Helps maintain the uterine lining during embryonic development

240
Q

Seminiferous Tubules

A

SIte where sperm are produced

241
Q

Epididymis

A

Site where sperm mature

242
Q

Interstitial Cells

A

Produce Testosterone

243
Q

Vas Deferens

A

Passage sperm take to get to the urethra

244
Q

Seminal Vesicles

A

Provide sperm with fructose for energy

245
Q

Prostate Gland

A

Provides an alkaline fluid that neutralizes vaginal acidity

246
Q

Zygote

A

Combination of a sperm and egg

247
Q

Cleavage

A

Rapid cell division of the embryo

248
Q

Morula

A

Solid ball of cells

249
Q

Blastula

A

Second stage of embryonic development

250
Q

Blastocoel

A

Fluid filled cavity in the embryo

251
Q

Gastrulation

A

Zygte changes shape

252
Q

Germ Layers

A
  • Ectoderm
  • Mesoderm
  • Endotherm
253
Q

Ectotherm

A

Produces the epidermis, eyes, and nervous system

254
Q

Mesoderm

A

Produces bones, muscles, excretory, circulatory, and reproductive systems

255
Q

Endotherm

A

Produces the inner linings of the digestive and respiratory tract, as well as accessory organs (pancreas, gallbladder, and liver)

256
Q

Neurula

A

Stage in which the notochord and neural tube are made

257
Q

Notochord

A

A rod shaped structure running beneath the nerve chord

258
Q

Neural Tube

A

Cells that develop into the CNS

259
Q

Extaembryonic Membranes

A
  • Yolk Sac
  • Amnion
  • Chorion
  • Allantois
260
Q

Yolk Sac

A

Provides food for the embryo

261
Q

Amnion

A

Forms a fluid filled sac that protects the embryo

262
Q

Allantois

A

Membrane involved in gas exchange, stores uric acid

263
Q

Chorion

A

Surrounds all other extraembryonic membranes

264
Q

Placenta

A

Provides the fetus with nutrients and oxygen and gets rid of fetal waste

265
Q

Umbilical Cord

A

Connects the embryo to the placenta

266
Q

Induction

A

Determining the fate of embryonic tissues during development

267
Q

Organizers

A

Release chemical substances that moves from one tissue to target tissues

268
Q

Morphogens

A

Chemical substances that determine the fate of a target tissue in development

269
Q

Homoetic Genes

A

Control the development of the embryo

270
Q

Homeobox Genes

A

Similar DNA sequences that encode proteins to bind to DNA in order to tell cells what structures they will form

271
Q

Differentiation

A

Creating specialized cells from unspecialized cells

272
Q

Hox Genes

A

Specify the positions of body parts in the developing embryo

273
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death and assists in determining the final shape of the offspring

AP Biology (10 decks)

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