Animal Form and Function- [Muscular System, Immune, Integumentary, Skeletal] Flashcards
The Muscle System
-Muscle Fibers
A skeletal muscle consists of numerous muscle cells called MUSCLE FIBERS.
The Muscle System
- Ligaments
- Tendons
- Origin
- Insertion
- Extension
- Flexion
- Ligaments - bone to bone connectors, strengthen joints
- Tendons - muscle-to-bone, bend skeleton at moveable joints
- Origin = point of attachment of muscle to stationary bone.
- Insertion = point of attachment of muscle to bone that moves.
- Extension = Straightening of joint
- Flexion = bending of joint
The Muscle System
3 types of joints
- Fibrous - define and give an example
- Cartilaginous - define and give an example
- Synovial - define and give an example
- Fibrous = connect bones w/o allowing any movement
Ex = skull, pelvis, spinous process and vertebrae) - Cartilaginous = bones attached by cartilage, allow little movement
Ex = spine & ribs - Synovial = allow for much more movement; most common; filled with synovial fluid which acts as a lubricant
EX = carpals, wrist, elbow, knee joint.
The Muscular System
Skeletal muscle(striated muscle)- multi or uni? voluntary or involuntary?
- Myofibrils
- Sacromeres
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Sarcoplasm
- Sarcolemma
* Action Potential
* T-tubules - Mitochondria
Skeletal muscle(striated muscle) - voluntary movement, fibers are MULTINUCLEATED cells.
MYOFIBRILS= Composed of thin and thick filaments.
- Sacromeres= Individual contractile units separated by a border (Z-line)
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum = Stores Ca2+l surrounds myofibrils
- Sarcoplasm= cytoplasm
-Sarcolemma = Plasma membrane of muscle cells ; can propagate ACTION POTENTIAL
I) invaginated by T-TUBULES - channels for ion flow.
II) Wraps several myofibrils together to form a muscle cell/muscle fiber.
-Mitochondria = Present in large amounts in myofibrils
Sarcomere is composed of ____ and ____
Is composed of thin filaments (ACTIN) and thick filaments (MYOSIN)
The Muscle System
Sacromere
*Z lines
* M line
*I band
* H zone
*A band- Z lines= zig zag
* M line= middle
* I band = Region containing thin filaments(actin) only- H zone = Contains thick filaments(myosin) only.
- A band = Carries H zone and I band. Actin and myosin overlapping
The Muscle System
What are 3 kinds of muscles?
Skeletal Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
The Immune System
Skin and Mucous membranes
Provides a nonspecific first line of defense against invaders entering through the skin or through openings into the body.
The Immune System
-Antimicrobial proteins:where is it found?
(such as lysozyme, which breaks down the cell walls of bacteria) are contained in saliva, tears.
The Immune System
- Cilia
- Gastric Juice
- Cilia = Lines the lungs served to sweep invaders out.
- Gastric Juice = Stomach kills most microbes.
The Immune System
-Symbiotic bacteria: Where is it found?
Found in Digestive tract and vagina outcompetes many other many other organisms. that could cause damage.
The Immune System
Types of WBCs
- Phagocytes
- Neutrophills
- Monocytes
- Macrophages
Phagocytes - are white blood cells(leukocytes) that engulf pathogens by phagocytosis.
They include NEUTROPHILLS and MONOCYTES.
Macrophages = Monocytes enlarge into large phagocytic cells.
The Immune System: 2nd line of defense
-Interferons
Secreted by cells invaded invaded by viruses/pathogens that stimulate neighboring cells to produce proteins defend against virus.
The Muscular System
Types of Muscle Response:
* Simple Twitch
1. Laten Period
2. Contraction
3. Relaxation
Simple Twitch = Response of a single muscle fiber to brief stimulus;
- Laten Period= Time btw stimulation and onset of contraction, relax
- Contraction
- Relaxation= unresponsive to the stimulus.
The Muscular System
Types of Muscle Response:
- Summation
- Tetanus
-Summation = contractions combine & become stronger and more prolonged.
Tetanus = Continuous sustained contractionl muscle cannot relax. Will release if maintained
The Muscular System
Types of Muscle Response:
-Tonus
Tonus = State of partial contraction; muscle never completely relaxed.
The Muscular System
- Smooth Muscle
- Vol or invol?
- What does it lack?
- Which NS system is it stimulated by?
- Give example of Smooth Muscle
Involuntaril, ONE central nucleus, LACKS striation; stimulate by the AUTONOMIC nervous system.
Ex- lining of bladder, blood vessel walls_
The Muscular System
- What are two types of smooth muscle?
Single- Unit(visceral)= visceral, has gap junctions, contracts as a single unit (stomach, uterus, urinary bladder)
MULTI UNIT - Attached to the neuron contracts independently(iris,)
The Muscular System
Cardiac Muscle
- striated or non-striated?
- # of central nuclei?
- mitochondria
- Striated appearance (sarcomeres)
- One or TWO central nucleil
- Lots of mitochondria
The Muscular System
Both smooth and cardiac muscle are ______.
State and describe.
Both smooth and cardiac muscle are MYSOGENIC
MYSOGENIC = capable of contracting without stimuli from nerve cells.
The Muscular System
Movement in lower forms:
Unicellular Locomotion
*Protozoans & primitive algae.
* Amoeba
- Protozoans & primitive algae= Cilia or flagella by means of POWER STROKE an RECOVERY STROKE
- Amoeba =extend PSEUDOPODIAl advancing cell membrane extends forward.
The Muscular System
Movement in lower forms:
- Invertebrate Locomotion
* Hydrostatic Skeleton
* *Flatworms-logitudinal & circular, contract against hydrostatic skeleton.
* * Segmented Worms (Annelids)
- Hydrostatic Skeleton
* *FLATWORMS -longitudinal & circular, contract against hydrostatic skeleton. Contraction causes it to flow better.** Segmented Worms (Annelids) = Bristles in lower part of each segment , SETAE, anchor worm in earth while muscles push ahead.
The Skeletal System
- Exoskeleton
- Arthropods- what are they made of?
-Arthropods - made of hard CHITLIN,molting for growth.
The Skeletal System
- What is the Vertebrate Skeleton comprised of?
- What are two major components for it?
It is comprised of an ENDOSKELETON.
2 major components are CARTILAGE and BONE.
The Skeletal System
-Vertebrate Skeleton
1. Cartilage - what kind of tissue is it made out of?
What are the 3 types of cartilage?
Cartilage is made of AVASCULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE. It is softer and more flexible (Ex - ear, nose, larynx, trachea.)
3 Types:
1) Hyaline (most common; absorbs shock in joints) 2) Fibrocartilage 3. Elastic cartilage.
The Skeletal System
Bone - Is made out of what kind of tissue?
Function -
Made of connective tissue; hard and strong.
Function - helps protect organs, assist in body movement.
The Skeletal System
Bone has 4 different types of cells:
- Osteoprogenitor
- Osteoblasts
- Osteocytes
- Osteoclasts
Bone has 4 different types of cells:
- Osteoprogenitor - differentiate into osteoblasts
- Osteoblasts = build bone. BLASTS means BUILD!
- Osteocytes = incapable of mitosis
- Osteoclasts = Destroy bone
The Integumentary (Skin) System
- Functions of Skin
- Thermoregulation -
- Protection -
- Excretion -
- Immunity -
- Blood reservoir -
- Vit D synthesis -
- Functions of Skin
- Thermoregulation - helps regulate body temp.
- Protection - skin is a physical barrier.
- Excretion - water/salt excreted thru skin
- Immunity - cells made of epidermis are components of immune system.
- Blood reservoir - Vessels in the dermis hold up to 10% of the blood
- Vit D synthesis - UV radiation activated skin molecule that is precursor to vit D.
The Integumentary (Skin) System
Structure of the Skin
-Epidermis - what is it? Tissue?
*Stratum Corneum-(top layer)
*S. Lucidum
* S. Granulosum
*S. spinosum
*S. Basale(bottom layer)Structure of the Skin
-Epidermis - what is it? Top layer. Avascular epithelial tissue. Layers from TOP TO BOTTOM:
* Stratum Corneum- (top layer)25-30 dead layers; filled w keratin and surround lipids * S. Lucidum- palms & soles of feet, finger tips * S. Granulosum - 3-5 layer of dying cells * S. spinosum - Strength and flexibility * S. Basale - (bottom layer)Contains Merkel cells and stem cells that produce keratinocytes.
The Integumentary (Skin) System Structure of the Skin
- Cells of the epidermis:
1. Keratinocytes
2. Melanocytes
3. Langerhans cells
4. Merkel Cells
- Cells of the epidermis:
1. Keratinocytes - helps waterproof the skin
2. Melanocytes - transfer skin pigment melanin to keratinocytes.
3. Langerhans cells- interact w helper T-cells of immune system.
4. Merkel Cells - Attach to sensory neurons and fxn in touch sensation.
The Integumentary (Skin) System
Structure of the Skin
-Dermis - What kind of tissue?
- What are the two regions for it?
Made of primarily connective tissue,
2 regions:
A) Papillary Region -top 20%
B) Reticular Region -Dense connective tissue. Majority of the region.
The Integumentary (Skin) System Structure of the Skin
-Hypodermins(subcutaneous)- what kind of tissue?
Not part of the skin.
Areolar and adipose tissue. Fat storage.
The Integumentary (Skin) System
Glands of the Skin
- Sebaceous (Oil) glands
- Sudoriferous (sweat) glands
- Eccrine
- Apocrine
- Ceruminous(wax) glands-
- Mammary(milk) glands-
- Sebaceous (Oil) glands- Connected to hair follicles absent in palms and soles.
- Sudoriferous (sweat) glands *Eccrine - most of the body. Regulated temperature thru perspiration
- Apocrine - armpits, pubic region, nipples,
- Ceruminous(wax) glands - found in ear canal; produces wax-like
- Mammary(milk) glands
The Immune System
Types of WBC’s
Phagocytes - Nuetrophils
*Chemotaxis
Most abundant WBC’s. They play a key role in infection. Injured areas by chemicals in process called CHEMOTAXIS
The Immune System
Types of WBC’s
Phagocytes - Monocytes
*Macrohages
Move into tissues where they develop into MACROPHAGES(which phagocytize cell debris/pathogens.
The Immune System
Types of WBC’s
Phagocytes - EOSINOPHILS
Work collectively to surround and destroy multicellular parasites.
The Immune System
Types of WBC’s
Phagocytes - Dendritic Cells(monocyte)
Main function is to activate T- cells. Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells which are able to mark out cells that are antigens (foreign bodies) that need to be destroyed by lymphocytes.
The Immune System
Types of WBC’s
Phagocytes - Mast Cells
Release histamine which causes vasodilation(inflammatory)
The Immune System - 2nd line of defense
Lymphocytes
- Basophils
Releases histamines for inflammatory response for allergic reactions
The Immune System - 2nd line of defense
Lymphocytes
-Complements how many proteins?
-What does it attract and destroy?
20 compliment proteins; help attract phagocytes to foreign cells and help destroy by promoting cell lysis.
The Immune System - 2nd line of defense
Lymphocytes
-INTERFERONS -
Interferons are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or tumor cells
The Immune System - 2nd line of defense INFLAMATORY RESPONSE 1. Histamine 2. Vasodilation 3. Phagocytes 4. Complement
NFLAMATORY RESPONSE
- Histamine - Secreted by basophils. Causes vasodilation.
- Vasodilation - stimulated by histamine, increases blood supply to area.
- Phagocytes - Attracted to injury by chemical gradients of complement, engulfs damaged cells.
- Complement- Helps phagocytes engulf foreign cells
The Immune System - 3rd line of defense
Major Histocompatibility Complex- Or MHC
The mechanism by which the immune system is able to differentiate b/w self and non-self cells.
- The MHC is a collection of glycoproteins that exists on the membranes of all body cells.
The Immune System - 3rd line of defense
LYMPHOCYTES- What areas do they attend to?
Primary agents of immune response. They concentrate on lymphatic tissues such as lymph nodes, thymus gland, and spleen.
The Immune System - 3rd line of defense
LYMPHOCYTES - ( B-Cells)
* Antigen receptors
* Antibodies
What are the 5 classes of antibodies (or IMMUNOGLOBULINS)
B-CELLS (antibodies) are lymphocytes that originate and mature in bone marrow. B-CELLS respond to ANTIGENS. B-cells are characterized by ANTIGEN RECEPTORS called ANTIBODIES.
-5 classes of antibodies = IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM
The Immune System - 3rd line of defense
LYMPHOCYTES - ( B-Cells)
* When antigen bound to B cell -->
* Plasma Cells
* Memory Cells
When antigen bound to B cell –> Proliferation(2 copies) into daughter B cells———-> Plasma Cells
Plasma Cells = B cells that release specific antibodies that circulate in blood.
Memory Cells = Long-lived B cells that do not release antibodies in response to immediate antigen invasion.
The Immune System - 3rd line of defense
LYMPHOCYTES - T CELLS (foreign)
T CELLS are lymphocytes that originate in the bone marrow, but mature in the thymus gland (T cell for Thymus). Like B cells, the plasma membrane of T cells have antigen receptors.
The Immune System - 3rd line of defense
LYMPHOCYTES - T CELLS (foreign)
* When T cells encounter nonself cells - what do they do?
* Cytotoxic T cells
* Helper T cells
* Suppressor T cells
* Memory T cells
- When T cells encounter nonself cells - what do they do? - They divide and produce 4 kinds of cells.
* Cytotoxic T cells - KILLER T-CELLS recognize and destroy
* Helper T cells- Stimulate activation of B cells. cytotoxic T cells, and supressor T-cells.
* Suppressor T cells - Play negative feedback role in immune system
* Memory T cells - similary fxn to memory B cells.
The Immune System - 3rd line of defense
LYMPHOCYTES - Natural Killer Cells
Natural Killer Cells - Attack virus-infected cells or abnormal body cells(tumors)
The Immune System:
Responses of immune system are categorized into 2 kinds of reactions:
1. CELL-MEDIATED RESPONSE:
A) Produce cytotoxic T cells (destroy) and helper T cells.
B) Helper T cells bind MACROPHAGES
C) Helper T cells then produce INTERLEUKINS
Effective against infected cells. Uses mostly T cells and responds to ANY NONSELF CELL, including calls invaded by pathogens.
A) Produce cytotoxic T cells (destroy) and helper T cells.
B) Helper T cells bind MACROPHAGES= (macrophages engulf pathogens = whole is nonself)
C) Helper T cells then produce INTERLEUKINS = stimulates proliferation of Tcells and B cells
The Immune System:
Responses of immune system are categorized into 2 kinds of reactions:
2. HUMORAL RESPONSE(antibody-mediated response)
a) B cells produce plasma cells
b) B cells produce memory cells
c) Macrophage & helper T cells stimulate B cell production.
d)General Progression —->
Responds to antigens or pathogens that circulate in lymph or blood (bacteria, fungi, parasites, viruses)
a) B cells produce plasma cells
b) B cells produce memory cells
c) Macrophage & helper T cells stimulate B cell production.
d) General Progression —-> Naive —> Mature —-> Plasma —-> Antibody.
The Immune System
-Humans supplement natural body defenses by:
- Antibiotics-
- Vaccines -
- Passive Immunity-
- Humans supplement natural body defenses by:
- Antibiotics- chemicals derived from bacteria or fungi that are harmful to other microorganisms.
- Vaccines -Stimulate production of memory cells from inactivated viruses or weakend bacteria
- Passive Immunity- Transferred antibodies from another individual (EX- newborns from mother)
- Acquired immediately, but short-lived
- Gamma glbulin(blood containing antibodies) - can confer temporary protection against hepatitis and other diseases.
