animal final Flashcards
what is physiology
functional dynamics in living things
what are the levels of biological organization
biochemical, cellular, organ, systemic, organismal
what did aristotle observe
natural processes within bodies
what two people studied physiology with a connection to medicine
galen and harvey
anatomical studies lead to speculation about____
function
when did galen live
2nd century rome
what did galen postulate
flow dynamics of blood in human body
who studied medicine in early experimental investigations (post medieval)
william harvey
when did william harvey live
17th century
what did william harvey prove
refuted galens direction of blood flow through study of cardiovascular system
what processes affect the internal environment of an organism
temperature, ph, ion levels
what can affect membrane/protein structures in an organism
changes in the internal environment
how can reaction dynamics be affected in the internal environment
by changes in the internal environment via kinetic energy
why is a stable internal environment vital for organisms
to maintain constant internal conditions
what regualtes internal conditions
homeostasis
why is the father of physiology
c. bernard
when did bernard live
19th century france
what did bernard do
work on renal and cardiovascular systems emphasizing internal environment
what are two ways body parameters can be compromised
external environmental changes, internal generated changes
what are some external environmental changes
temperature, solutes
what are some examples of internally generated changes
rest vs exercise, eating vs fasting
what are additional complications to compromised body parameters
disturbance length, conform or regulate
what is a conformer
parameter changes with the environment, no homeostasis
what is a regulator
regulate against environmental changes until some extreme limit is reached
what is circumstantial regulation
animal itself is both a conformer and a regulator depending on the observed parameter
what is an example of a circumstantial regulator
salmon conform to temperature but regulates chloride ion concentration
what limits the ability of an organism to resist a change
compromised body parameters
what is the genomic perspective on evolutionary physiology
look at variability within the population, that variability is material for evolution to operate on
traits of evolution are programmed by ___
genetics
what is evolutionary physiology based on population genetics
morphological variation versus genetic variation
what is morphological variation
easily recognizable, involves allelic differences
why does genetic variation exist
because of allele differences within and between populations
why studied physiological genomics
t. garland
what about physiological genomics did t. gardland study
disease susceptibility, establishment of adaptive traits
what is a negative feedback system
constant monitoring of a controlled parameter that minimizes deviation from pet point giving stability of a parameter
why studied cybernetics
w. cannon
what about cybernetics did w. cannon study
regulatory system operation, constant monitoring of controlled parameter
what is a sensor
keeps tabs on regulated paramter
what parameter does a sensor usually keep tabs on
often more than one nerve cell or other neural component
what is the control center
usually in the brain to interpret parameter information and compare to a set point
what is the effector/inverting amplifier
deliver output to modify parameter value, minimizing deviation from set point to yield stability
what is a fever
elevated temperature set point
what is a positive feedback system
response augments deviation from set point
what is an example of a positive feedback
ap generation and blood clotting
what does it mean that duration of activity and level of change is tightly controlled in positive feedback systems
there is a maximum level that causes rapid termination before it gets out of control
what is a positive feedback operation
effector evokes change in the same direction as the parameter
what is a servomechanism
operation may entail negative feedback, set point not fixed over a short period of time
what effect can a servomechanism have
rapid error sensing and output corrections become critical with instantaneous changes being made
when does servomechanism occur
in skeletal muscle during locomotion (rapidly changing levels in strength output, muscle length, point position)
what is metabolism
all chemical dynamics within an organism and the regulation of certain parameters
ATP production =____
cellular respiration
what are the 4 ways to measure whole animal metabolism
heat production/calorimetry
o2 consumption
co2 production
respiratory quotient
what is calorimetry
heat liberated when breaking down substances and making ATP
how do you measure calorimetry
calorimeter
what is a calorimeter
system isolated from external envinroment that is well insulted
what is o2 consumption in terms of animal metabolism
measuring the loss of o2 in environment and resulting pressure changes
how can o2 consumption be measured
indirectly through manometry or directly
how do you measure co2 production in animal metabolism
directly measure with equipment
what is the respiratory quotient
ratio of amounts of co2 produced divided by the amount of o2 used (co2prod/o2used)
what can the respiratory quotient show
the fuel source of the organism and also gives insight about diet and nutritional status
what is the rq for carbs
1
what is the rq for proteins/ amino acids
0.8-0.9
what is the rq for fatty acids
0.7
what is the fasting rq
1
what is the principle source of body heat
temperature regulation
what is endothermy
use elevated level of metablosm to produce most of needed body heat
what organisms are endotherms
mammals and birds
what are the ecological tradeoffs for endothermy
activity versus food intake
what did else and hulbert study
lizard vs mammal/bird
what were the major findings from else and hulberts lizard vs mammal/bird study
the body composition differences, cellular consideration differences,
what is the difference in body composition between endo and ectotherms
endo tissues form a larger percent of body mass (larger liver, larger heart, more muscle)
what are the cellular differences between endo and ectotherms
endotherms have more mitochondira in cells and a greater oxidative capacity
what are the ATP differences between endo and ectotherms
both have same ATP pools, but endotherms have a higher ATP turnover
what are the differences in plasma membranes in endo vs ectotherms
endotherm plasma membranes much leakier to sodium and hydrogen
what is the benefit of having leaky plasma membranes
it gives excess heat production because fighting against leaks by using ATP, the generation of the ATP produces heat needed by endotherms
working muscle increases the usage of ___
ATP
what is the ideal response to working muscle
constant low o2 consumption at rest, jumps sharply to higher o2 level at exercise, drops sharply to lower level of o2 consumption at rest
what is the actual response to working muscle
progressive rise in o2 consumption to a sustained level, but an o2 defecit with develop
what does o2 levels rise in proportion to
intensity of activity
what is EPOC
(excess postexercise oxygen consumption) oxygen debt repayment to correct biochemical disturbances caused by exercise
why is the best case of oxygen consumption not what is observed
because early stages of exercise require anaerobic metabolism before aerobic metabolism is able to kick in which causes a defecity of o2
what happens to o2 consumption during intense exercise
exceeds aerobic capacity so anaerobiosis becomes vital
what does anaerobic metabloism cause
fatigue, especially over time
what does maximal aerobic exercise do
elevates resting metabolic rate by 5-15 fold
why can mammals use aerobic metabolism longer than any other animal
because ATP production is better supported
what is supramaximal exercise
above maximum aerobic capacity (huge defecit (EPOC) to correct)
what is energy metabolism
sustainable production of ATP in order to maintain activity (ATP fuelds muscle machinery)
in glycolysis how many ATP are produced for one glucose molecule
2 atp/glucose
glycolysis is a high flux pathway, what does this mean
a lot of fuel can go through this process quickly
where is glycolysis occurring
cytoplasm
what builds up in cells during glycolysis
pyruvic acid
what happens to pyruvic acid in cells
some goes through pyruvate oxidation, the rest is converted to lactic acid
what happens when lactic acid is formed
NAD supply is depleted and glycolysis bottle necks encouraging lactic acid formation to help rebalance the NAD supply
what is the only fuel for direct use in the glycolysis pathway
glucose
what happens if you dont have glucose and you need to undergo glycolysis
gluconeogenesis to synthesize glucose from other sources
what are the downsides to using glycolysis
low efficiency, quick fatigue
why does fatigue occur in glycolysis
because of free inorganic phosphate
what is the intermediate level of aerobic metabolism driven by
glucose/glycogen
what are prolonged exercises better supported by
fatty acids
what is the major source for ATP production in the beginning of exercise
glucose from muscle glycogen
what is the source of ATP production in long term exercise
glucose from blood and fatty acids
____ have better aerobic metabolism
endotherms
what is the aerobic scope for insects
50-200x increase in aerobic metabolism from resting level
what does lactate dehydrogenase do
converts pyruvic acid to lactic acid
what is the clash effect
should i conform or should i regulate
whats an example of a standard morphological variation
eye colour differences in humans
whats an example of physiological variation within a population
some individuals of same species and same population can show differences in things like oxygen consumption
whats an example of genetic diversity of a species
a species can have different traits based on external factors. ex field mice size in canada versus mexico
what is manometry used for
indirectly measuring O2 consumption
describe a basic calorimeter
animal in shell, shell surrounded by ice, animals body melts ice and basin below shells collects water for measurement of melt per minute
why is endothermy not preferred
high activity needs high food intake (very fuel expensive)
what are some cellular differences in endotherms versus ectotherms
endotherms have more mitochondria due to higher need to generate ATP
what are some other smaller enzyme pathways for reactions
energy of activation, substrate to product, induced fit (pyruvic acid to lactic acid)
what does maude menten graph show
reaction velocity over substrate concentration
describe maude menten graph
exponental
what is Vmax (maude menten)
maximum rate of catalysis (saturation)
what is Km (maude menten)
substrate cencentration needed to reach half vmax (half max rate catalysis)
What is glycogenesis
Glucose from non-carbs
what are some physical features required for gas exchange in animals
large surface area, thin layer, well vascularized
what are the main types of gas exchange in animals
cutaneous, gills, lungs, tracheal system
what is a gill
evagination of body surface (can be external or internal)
whats the difference between external and internal gills
internal gills have a flap over them, external gills are exposed to the environment
what are lungs
sac-like invagination of body surface
what are tracheal systems
tubular invaginations from body surface
what is the advantage of respiratory systems
ready diffusion of O2 and CO2
whats a disadvantage of respiratory systems
rapid exchange with water/atmosphere can disturb body fluid composition
if body fluid composition is disturbed what can happen to an organism
can lead to edema
what is edema
fluid build up
how does O2 and CO2 move across a respiratory organ
diffusion or bulk flow
what is the difference between diffusion and bulk flow
diffusion is by concentration gradients, bulk flow is by a pressure gradient
what is key to ventilation of respiratory organs
bulk flow
why is it critical to move oxygen along a boundary layer
if you dont then a layer of hypoxia will occur and tissues can die. needs to be an exchange of o2 in and out of boundary layer
what kind of respiratory organs do most insects have
multiple tubular invaginations
what is a boundary layer
a layer of stagnant fluid (o2 and co2) along a gas exchange membrane (separates external and internal membranes)
what kinds of organisms use a tracheal system for respiration
insects and some arthropods
describe in short the anatomy of the tracheal system
tubular invaginations at body surface (spiracles) with diaphragms, with smaller tracheoles to deliver and remove gasses
how many spiracles are common on insects and arthropods
12
what is the diameter of tracheoles
0.5 micrometers
what is the function of a diaphragm with spiracles
diaphragm covers spiracle to control whats coming in and going out
what is the transport methods in a tracheal system
diffusion (works well for small organisms)
ventilation (works great for large organisms)
where are spiracles found on the body of insects and arthropods
found on thorax and abdomen
how does ventilation in large insects work
air sacs near spiracle, abdominal movements create pressure gradients and bulk flow (allow to draw air in and out at different rates)
why is simple diffusion not good enough for larger insects
not enough o2 in air to support movement with simple diffusion, too large of a surface area
how does a tracheal system work in water insects
many have a plastron
how does a plastron work
it acts as a gill for the organism. o2 from water can go into the air bubble due to concentration gradient in water and bubble
what organisms have a cutaneous gas exchange
amphibians, invertebrates (worms, cnidarians)
what is required of an organism for cutaneous gas exchange
large, thin, well vascularized surface area (surface area is generally the epidermis)
what are some major issues with cutaneous gas exchange
mechanical protection issues, can dry out, little control on exchange rate, boundary layer issues
what is the epidermal thickness in cutaneous gas exchange
one cell thick or a few cells thick epidermis
what gas exchange does a hellbender have
lungs and cutaneous gas exchange depending on what environment its in
how can an organism increase surface area if it uses cutaneous gas exchange
it can make fleshy folds to increase surface area
how does a hellbender remove a boundary layer thats been created from being in stagnent water
starts to rock itself to make a small current
what is the gas exchange method of amphibians
most amphibians have multiple gas exchange method
what is a bird respiratory system
numerous air sacs through body connected by passageways
what are the primary sets of air sacs in avian respiration
cranial and caudal air sacs
the lungs of a bird are honeycombed with what
tubules (parabronchi)
what induces volume change of fluid in avian respiration
muscular movements of ribs and sternum
what is the direction of airflow if avian reduces pressure
reduced pressure allows air inflow
what is the direction of airflow if avian increased pressure
increased pressure moves air out
how many cycles of air flow do avians have
two unidirectional air flow in parabronchi (2 volumes at once)
why is it significant to have two cycles of air flow in avian
reduced dilution with old air, keeps air fresh in lungs and more oxygen rich
why is it significant that avian bloodflow is crosscurrent with airflow
gives high level of oxygenation in low environmental oxygen
what part of the avian respiratory system is vascularized
air sacs not really vascularized, vascularization happens in the parabronchi between the anterior and posterior air sacs
why is it significant that avian capilaries are cross current
gives longer exposure to air so it gives a better gas exchange (vital when in low oxygen environment–like the sky)
what is the bony structure in birds that creates vocalization
syrinx
what is the syrinx synonemous with in humans
larynx
the syrinx has membrane like vocal chords, how can these produce different pitch
they can extend or retract the length of the chord to produce different sound
when one hears a bird song who are they typically hearing
typically small male birds trying to attract a mate
where is the syrinx located
at the base of the trachea
how can birds change the length of their “vocal chords”
head and neck movements
why does the size of a beak matter in bird vocalization
beak size is correlated to speed of movement and song dynamic
do small or large birds have more complex vocalizations
small birds have more complex
simply what is an amphibian lung
simple sac with moderate surface area elaboration
what kind of pressure inflation do reptile lungs have
positive pressure
are amphibian or reptile lungs more complex
reptile are more complex
what kind of pressure dynamic do most vertebrate lungs have
most vertebrate lungs have a negative pressure system
what is a negative pressure dynamic
use bucal cavity to push air into lungs creating a positive pressure (bucal cavity contracts pushing air positively into lungs)
what animal has one functional lung
snakes within reptiles (other lung is vestigial)
how do reptiles compensate for exchange since the integument doesnt have any meaningful O2 exchange
have more sacculations in their lungs to increase surface area without necessarily creating a bigger lung
what is a faveoli
a sac within the lungs of reptiles
where is the most sacculation (faveoli) in the lungs of snakes
primarily in first 1/3 of the snakes lung (1st 1/3 cranially)
what does the last 2/3 of the snake lung act as
acts as bellows which activates pressure cycles
what is a bellows
an area that allows contraction or expansion
how does a snake lung act as a bellows
old air in last 2/3 of lung is pushed towards outward creating an inner pull for new air to come in
all amphibians have sacculated lungs, why
to increase surface area and increase gas exchange
what is a thoracic cavity
present in mammalian lungs, pleural space, drained by lymphatic system)
simply what are mammalian lungs
paired lungs with lobes
how is air modified before coming into the lungs
air is conditioned to make it wetter, warmer, and cleaner
where is the diaphragm
below the lungs
how many lobes does a human heart have
5
why is there no gas exchange on the conduction zone
its too thick
why is gas exchange possible in the respiratory zone
because of millions of microscopic bubble like alveoli
what does the respiratory tree begin with
trachea that is superior to the thoracic cavity
the respiratory tree has successive branching, what are the main types of branching here
generations and alveoli
how many generations are there in mammalian lungs
23 (0-16 conducting zone, 17-23 respiratory zone)
what causes branchiolar constriction
smooth muscle walls of middle passagewats
what was branchiolar constriction
reduced airflow
what kind of constriction is present in asthma
hyperconstriction
how many alveoli are in the lungs
300 million
when would you use nearly all of the alveoli
when exercising
what surface area does 300 million alveoli create
85m^2 surface area
why do overweight individuals have a higher chance of having asthma
adipocytes release lung imflammatory protein (fatter you are, 3x more protein released and inflammation causes asthma)
what promotes relaxation and increased airflow of bronchioles when having asthma attack
sympathetic division with epinephrine
when would the bronchioles change in diameter
when they are inflammed they close up (asthma), when theyre relaxed theyre open
as the diameter of the bronchioles increases, the resistence of fluid movement ….
decreases
what affects the fluid movement of air in the bronchioles
tubule length and diameter
what is the size of a single alveolus
300microns
the main wall of the alveolus is made of what kind of cells
simple squamosal
what are the type 1 epithelial cells
main all of alveolus
what are the type 2 epithelial cells
between successive alveoli, secretory mitochondria
what are secretory mitochondria
lamellated bodies
what do secretory mitochindria produce
surfactant (dipalmitoyl lecithin)
what does a lack of surfactant (dipalmitoyl lecithin) cause
can cause respiratory distress syndrome in children
what do fibroblasts do
build connective tissue
what do macrophages do
remove pathogens (defensive function)
what kind of cells are type 2 epithelial cells
cuboidal
whats the function of surfactant
reduces cohesion of water molecules, reducing surface tension
what is the function of fibrocartilage in alveoli
ribrocartilage helps to keep alveoli open so gas exchange can continue
what are ventilation dynamics
pressure volume changes (tissue fluid pressure in pleural cavity)
why is tissue fluid pressure in pleural cavity higher than lung pressure
without the pressure difference lungs can collapse (pneumothorax)
what is the pressure difference between pleural cavity and lungs during inhalation
3-4mmHg
what is the pressure difference bwteen pleural cavity and lungs during exhalation
1-2mmHg difference from exhalation
what is pneumothorax
when pressure between pleural cavity and lung is compromised, lung collapses and pleural cavity fills with air
what forces lungs to move involuntarily
diaphragm will be activated to contract
what direction do intercostals move
outward and up
how much CO2 is in the body at all times
about 40mmHg
how much CO2 is in the environment usually
about 100mmHg
is inspiration or expiration always an active process
inspiration is ALWAYS an active process
what are the types of volume changes
inhalation and exhalation
how does inspiration happen
cavity boundaries expand and lung follows
how does exhalation happen
cavity boundaries recoil, lungs follow
how can exhalation be active or passive
passive because elastic recoil can force air from lungs, active because muscles (intercostals, rectus abdominus) can force air out of lungs
what is anatomical dead space
the residual volume of air in lungs that cannot be forced out
how much oxygen is found in alveoli
100mmHg
how much oxygen is found in environment
160mmHg
what is the exchange time to equilibrate blood to lung air
about 1/4 of a second
what is the resting transit time to equilibrate blood to lung air
about 3/4 of a second
what is the exercise transit time to equilibrate blood to lung air
about 1/3 of a second.
equilibrating blood to lung air is a feature of which type of epithelial cells
type 1 epithelial cells
elephants lack a pleural cavity, how do they keep their lungs from collapsing
lungs are tethered open
what is west’s argument for elephant lungs being tethered open
evolved for snorkeling behavior, water compression would otherwise collapse the lungs
what is elasticity
readily recoils to original shape
what is compliance
stretches easily
when is elasticity and compliance opposite of each other
at extreme ends of the spectra (if excessively elastic then lose compliance and vice versa)
what are obstructive lung diseases
COPD and asthma
what is COPD
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
how is COPD caused
cigarettes, volatile chemicals get in the middle of the respiratory tree and causes imflammation that can lead to emphazema meaning air cant get to alveoli because air tubing was blown apart, non reparable
what do obstructive lung diseases do
increase airway resistance
what do restrictive lung diseases do
increase elasticity of lungs
whats an example of a restrictive lung disease
fibrotic lung disease
how does fibrotic lung disease work
air bourse particles not being filtered out so they go in conductive or respiratory zone, tubercles are made in defense where fibroblasts trap off that part of the lung eventually reducing lung capacity
what does VC=
VC=TVr+IRV+ERV
what is vc
vital capacity
what is tvr
tidal volume resting
what is irv
inspiratory reserve volume
what is erv
expiratory reserve volume
what is vital capacity
maximum amount of air that can move through lungs
what is the typical total lung capacity
around 4-6L
what is vital capacity volume
3-5L
what is residual volume typically
1L
what is residual volume
excess air in lungs that cant be pushed out
what is tidal volume
amount of air moved in a breathing cycle
what is a typical tidal volume at rest
about 500ml
what is a typical inspiratory reserve
3L
what is a typical expiratory reserve
1L
inspiratory and expiratory each have their own ___ potantial
pacemaker
what is the purpose of increasing depth and rate of breathing for tetrapod vertebrates
maintaining hemoglobin saturation of O2 and CO2
what does branchiolar dialation do
lowers resistance
where in the brain is breathing controlled
medulla oblongata
what does the VRG of the medulla have
inspiratory and expiratory neurons
what does the DRG of the medulla have
modifies VRG activity
where does the pacemaker potention of inspiration and expiration happen
in the medualla
what are chemoreceptors
nerve endings involved in tissue chemistry
how do mammals regulate their breathing
through chemoreceptors
what is the driving dynamic in terrestrial animals
mostly CO2 and in turn pH
what is the driving dynamic in fish
o2
why does ph change as co2 changes in a driving dynamic of terrestrial animals
as hydrogen ions increases ph drops, in turn as co2 increases ph drops
what does driving dynamic affect? (the driving dynamic of)
blood and cerebral spinal fluid chemistry
what happens when not enough o2 coming into organism (too much co2 within)
hypoventilation
what happens when too much o2 comes in (not enough co2 within)
hyperventilation
what is the function of a stretch receptor
sets limit on inhalation
when can o2 be the driving dynamic in terrestrial animals
if o2 in body low enough it can become the driving dynamic
what conditions can cause o2 to be driving dynamic in terrestrial
emphazema, elevation (mountain sickness)
what is a secondary driving dynamic
driving dynamic that takes over when primary isnt most important anymore (ex. emphazema o2)
what does the pons in the brain affect
breathing rythem
why are higher brain centers like the pons required
needed for controlling rythm of breathing when swimming for exaplme
what is responsible for involuntary breathing
medulla
what are invertebrate gills common in
large bodied or more active aquatic invertebrates
what are some examples of invertebrates that have gills
crustaceans and polycheates
which invertebrates use gills on land
isopods
what are parapodia
fleshy extensions with large surface area used in locomotion and gas exchange (polycheates)
what are some examples of polycheates that use parapodia
sand worm and clam worm
what kind of gills do decapod crustaceans have
internal cavity
what are internal cavity gills
carapas covers the gills so its an evagination but its covered (similar to that of fish)
what kind of breathing do fish have
ram ventilation or buccal-opperculum pumping
what is ram ventilation
swim with the mouth open, water passes over the gills and goes out the gill slit
where are the fish gills
internalized in chamber adjoining the pharynx
what kind of fish have separate chambers for each gill
primitive fishes like hagfish and lampreys and condricthes
osteichthyes have a ____ to cover gills and make them more internalized
opperculum
what organ helps with osmoregulation and ion regulation in fishes
gills
what is buccal-operculum pumping
expand buccal-operculum cavity with operculum closed and mouth open (water flows in due to reduced pressure) then contract buccal operculum cavity with operculum valve open and mouth closed (forces water over gills and outside the body)
what kind of gas exchange dynamic do fish have
counter current dynamic
what is counter current exchange
water flows across gill epithelium from pharynx toward gill slit, blood flows through vessels in opposite direction
why is counter current gas exchnage good for fishes
blood hits increasing o2 levels keeping the blood very high in 02
what is internal transport in animals
cardiovascular systems of animals
why cant you call internal transport cardiovascular
because not all animals have blood vessels
what is the driving dynamic for internal transport
multicellularity, effecient transport, bulk flow dynamics
what are the components of internal transport system
hearts, vasculature, and blood
what is a heart
muscular pump generating pressure cycles with 2 major configurations
what are the two major configurations of a heart
chambered or tubular
what does it mean for a heart to be neurogenic
nerve cells trigger activation of the muscle
what heart type is usually associated with neurogenic
tubular heart
what is myogenic heart
special muscle tissue with pace maker function
what heart type is associated with myogenic
chambered hearts
what organisms usually have tubular hearts
arthropods
which heart type is best for active lifestyle
chambered (except in insects)
which heart type has a higher pressure and a higher flow rate
chambered hearts
what organisms have chambered hearts
vertebrates and cephalopods
what kind of contractions does a tubular heart have
peristaltic
what does it mean for vasculature to be open
very few vessels (more so extensions of the heart instead of strict vessels)
what does it mean for vasculature to be closed
can have some open cavities but have many blood vessels
where can you find an open cavity in the vasculature of vertebrates (closed)
in sinus of liver
what is the function of an artery
direct blood away from the heart
what are capillaries
uncountable microscopic vessels
how thick are capilaries
1 cell layer thickness
what is the function of capillaries
gas exchange occurs here since walls are thin enough
what is the function of veins
direct blood back to the heart
what is blood
moving fluid of plasma and formed elements
what is the historic name for blood
hemolymph
how much of blood is usually plasma
usually around 90%
what do atria recieve
they are recieving chambers for venous blood
the blood flow through body is focused about what
focused about gas exchange to support the aerobic needs of the organism
blood flows along ____
pressure gradient
when blood pressure levels increase the organism is in___
systole
when blood pressure levels decrease the organism is in ___
diastole
why does circulation in mammals have two circuits
to optimize oxygen delivery/co2 removal
what is the basic anatomy of the heart
RA LA RV LV
where does the pulmonary circuit flow from
RV to LA
where does the pulmonary trunk go to
pulmonary trunk to lungs to pulmonary veins
where does the systemic circuit flow from
LV to RA
what artery is associated with the systemic circuit
aorta
where does the aorta flow to
aorta to body to vena cava
which circuit (systemic or pulmonary) is stronger
systemic is 5x stronger than pulmonary (has to send blood further through body)
what happens if theres too much pressure in pulmonary
edema
what is edema
drowning in your own tissue fluids
what are the main muscles in the heart
superficial sinospiral, deep sinospiral, superficial bulbospiral
what do the muscles of the heart allow for
increased pressure
what are the valves of the heart
atrioventricular (bicuspid(mitral) and tricuspid), senilunar
what helps to stabilize valves when open and closing in heart
the chordae tensonae
when heart is relaxed what state is it in
diastole
when heart is contracting what state is it in
systole
what is the basic 4 step heart cycle
atrial systole ventricular diastole
ventricular systole atrial diastole
atrial diastole ventricular diastole
repeat
how does the heart cycle change when excercising
shorten the length of A and V diastole in step 3
how many heart beats per minute is average for a mammal
70 beats per minute
how long is atrial systole
0.1s
how long is ventricular systole
0.2s
how long is diastole
0.5 seconds
how much thicker is the left ventricle from the right ventrical
left ventrical is 3x thicker than right
what is the main function of a valve in a heart
to keep blood flowing in the correct direction
what side is the tricuspid valve on
on the right
what side is the mitral(bicuspid) valve on
on the left
what happens when the heart gets too muscular
hypertrophy
action potential in hearts has what two major phases
depolarization and repolarization
what is depolarization
cells become less negatively changed
what is repolarization
cells return to the RMP
who realized electrical field disturbance of heart can be masured at skin surface
willem einthoven
what is an EKG
electrocardiogram
what are the 3 pirnciple waves of the ekg
p wave, qrs wave, t wave
what is the p wave
depolarization of atria
what is the qrs wave
depolarization of ventricles
what is the t wave
repolarization of ventricles
what is the pr interval
transit time for action potential to go from sa node and through av node
what is pr segment
av delay
what is qt inerval
complete timeline of ventricular action potential
what is st segment
depolarization plateau
what is the function of einthovens triangle
shows where net electrical axis is for the heart
what is the electrical axis of the heart
mean direction of current flow
how do you determine the electrical axis of the heart
by comparing signal properties from 3 limbs
what is the first heart sound
closing of the atrial ventricular valve
what is the closing of the atrial ventricular valve
start of ventricular systole
what is the second heart sound
closing of the semi lunar vales
what does the closing of the semi lunar valves signal
end of ventricular systole
what is an EKG (ECG)
electrocardiogram
when are the semilunar valves open
only open when pressure in ventricles is higher than pressure in atria
what is the ejection phase
when pressure is enough to push blood through valves
what is the formula for how much blood is ejected in a heart cycle
EDV-ESV=Stroke volume
what is EDV
end diastolic volume
what is ESV
end systolic volume
what is diastasis
a brief situation where blood leaves ventricles even though atrial pressure is slightly higher
what is isovolumetric relaxation
semilunar valves close as vestricles relax
what is ventricular filling due to
due to inertia
when is passive return used
as long as atrial pressure is higher than ventricular pressure the atriaventricular valve will be open
which circuit is high pressure and which is low pressure
systemic is high, pulmonary is low
how much blood remains in atria at all times
around 40-50ml
what is the blood remaining in the atria
end systolic volume
what is the p wave
synchronous contraction of the left and right atria
what are the three steps to ventricular systole
isovolumetric contraction, ejection phase, diastasis (inertia)
what is ventricular diastole
isovolumetric relaxation
when is the atrioventricular valve open
during atrial systole, during ventricular filling
when is the atrioventricular valve closed
isoventricular contraction, ventricular ejection, isovolumetric relaxation
when is the aortic valve open
ventricular ejection
during atrial systole the ventricles are already filled, why is blood still put into the ventricles
its a sort of topping off of the tank, its not a meaningful impact of the heart during rest
what is the p wave
atrial systole
what is the qrs wave
isovolumetric contraction
what is the t wave
ventricular ejection
what is end diastolic volume
maximum volume in ventricles when atria in systole
what is the approximate EDV
120ml
what is cardiac output
amount of blood pumped per unit time (L/min)
what is the approximate cardiac output for one circuit
5-6L/circuit of circulation
why does the amount of oxygen in the blood matter for aerobic organisms
to prevent hypoxia
how many liters of blood is pumped per minute for most adult humans
25-27 liters
