anatomy and physiology exam one Flashcards
homeostasis
involuntary ability to maintain a balance in the body’s internal environment
living organisms respond to _____
stimuli
anatomy
scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure, such as the size and shape of a bone
scientific study of the structure of the body
physiology
scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things
scientific study of the function of the body
*how something is supposed to work
what are the five physiologically relevant ions that respond to stimuli?
sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, calcium
what are the four major organically relevant groups of organic molecules?
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids
ions move, leading to proteins changing conformation, what does this mean?
proteins change form, resulting in change in function
histology
study of tissues
x-ray - EXAM ONE
shortwave electromagnetic radiation moves through the body and is exposed on a photographic plate to form a radiograph
radiograph
creates a flat, two-dimensional image
on an x-ray, structures that are dense (such as bone) will appear _____, air will be _____, and other structures will be _____ depending on density
white; black; shades of gray
sutures
joints that do NOT move
*think gomphosis (teeth)
joints
where two bones come together
ultrasound - EXAM ONE
high-frequency sound waves pass into the body, striking internal organs, and bounce back to the receiver on the skin; visualized as a sonogram
ultrasounds can be used to identify gender between weeks _____ and _____ of pregnancy
16; 22
why may an ultrasound be used? (*RN QUESTION)
- to view the uterus and ovaries during pregnancy and monitor the developing baby’s health
- diagnose gallbladder disease
- evaluate blood flow
- guide a needle for biopsy or tumor treatment
- examine a breast lump
- check they thyroid gland
- find genital and prostate problems
extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy (ESWL)
ultrasound waves are used to break a kidney stone into smaller pieces, which can pass out with the urine
extracorporeal
situated or occurring outside the body
computed tomography (CT)
computer-analyzed x-ray images
digital subtraction angiography (DSA) - EXAM ONE
similar to a CT scan but uses a radiopaque dye (that is injected into the blood) to enhance differences in areas
angiography
a type of x-ray used to check blood vessels; special dye called a contrast agent is injected into blood to highlight blood vessels
angiograms
x-ray images created during an angiography
angio
vessels
hypoglycemia
low blood sugar; results in trouble for the brain, liver and erythrocytes
ischemia
no oxygen
a blood vessel to the heart that is blocked, results in what?
myocardial infarction: heart attack
a blood vessel to the brain that is blocked, results in what?
stroke
red blood cells (live for 120 days) have no mitochondria, meaning they undergo a lot of _____ to maintain existence
glycolysis
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
radio waves directed to a patient while under a large electromagnetic field; radio waves collected and analyzed by computer
an MRI is more effective at detecting some forms of cancer than a _____ scan
CT (computed tomography)
positron emission tomography (PET)
radioactively labeled glucose usage by a tissue is detected; provides info on metabolic state
tissues
group of cells with similar form and function that come together to make organ systems
what are the four major types of tissue?
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
pathology
structural and functional changes caused by disease
*disease: disruption in how something should work
pharmacology
alleviating medical condition with remedies
what is the largest organ in our body?
skin (integument)
what happens to the skin during cold weather?
skin gets dry and cracks, allowing bacteria and viruses to invade
what are the four hormones that help elevate low blood sugar (combat hypoglycemia)?
cortisol, adrenaline (epinephrine), growth hormone, glucagon
cortisol
stress hormone
glucagon
secreted from alpha cells of islets of langerhans of pancreas
what hormone helps lower blood sugar (combat hyperglycemia)?
insulin
insulin
secreted from beta cells
endo-
into the bloodstream
exo-
out through the gastrointestinal tract
_____ is worse in short-term
hypoglycemia
_____ is worse in long-term because it can cause blood to crystalize, which can block blood flow to tissues (ischemia)
hyperglycemia
which tissue types have resting membrane potentials (RMPs)?
all: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
which excitable tissue types use RMPs to generate action potentials (APs)?
muscle and nervous
resting membrane potentials (RMPs)
difference in charge across a membrane: inside of cell is negative and outside of cell is positive
secretion
implies something is NOT a waste and that a cell is exocytosing something
secreting
means to stay within the system, bind to receptors and do something positive
excretion
implies something is a waste: a metabolic byproduct that builds up to become toxic
what are the four major excretory organs?
kidneys, liver, skin, colon
what protects the kidneys?
ilium (hip bone), three lower ribs, and abdominal fat
colon
last part of the gastrointestinal tract
skin
largest organ in the human body; serves as a defense
epidermis
is NOT living; consists of five layers - two of which are already dead
bones
major source of calcium and blood cells; contain two types of marrow cavities
red marrow
active; allow for erythropoiesis, red blood cell production
yellow marrow
inactive; filled with fat
skeletal muscle
can control voluntarily and has an outward, visible manifestation
hemodynamics
blood flow changes to different parts of the body based on living things responding to stimuli (think blood flow to the skin)
how does hemodynamics function when we are scared and our fight or flight response is activated?
blood flow to skeletal muscle goes up, flow to the brain goes up, BUT flow to the skin goes down because if we are injured we don’t want to bleed out
how does hemodynamics function when we are cold?
blood flow increases to internal organ’s center of the body and blood flow to the skin goes down until we overheat, then we can dissipate heat (overheat, flush, dissipate heat)
what part of the brain is the last to evolve?
prefrontal cortices
prefrontal cortices
think COGNITION: what allows us to think, reason, cause/effect, and engage
which of the two is stronger: hormones or neurotransmitters?
hormones: this is a numbers game in terms of strength
arteries
carry blood away from the heart
veins
carry blood toward the heart
why have arteries evolved to be deeper in the body?
they have more blood pressure, so we want to protect them and avoid them bing hit
which three arteries are exposed?
carotid artery, jugular vein, femoral artery and vein
capillary beds are constantly leaking, even without injury, what system pick up this fluid?
lymphatic system
injury _____ leak of fluid from capillary beds
increases
edema
swelling
blood pH and CO2 have an _____ relationship
inverse: if CO2 is up, then pH is down
what are the three important processes of the medulla oblongata?
blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate
things being put into the gastrointestinal tract is later expurgated by the ______
colon (EXOCRINE)
anything going into the bloodstream is _____
endocrine
dialysis
machine that filters blood, when kidneys are down :(
metabolism
ability to use energy to perform vital functions; all chemical reactions of the body
responsiveness
ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary
growth
increase in size and/or number of cells
glucagon like protein I (GLP1)
makes you feel full
development
changes in an organism over time
differentiation
change from general to specific
morphogenesis
change in shape of tissues, organs, or the entire organism
reproduction
formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring
life
living things respond to stimuli
values of _____ (conditions) fluctuate around the _____ (ideal normal value) to establish a ____ of values
variables; set point; normal range
what is the normal human temperature?
98.6 degrees fahrenheit
why is it important for human temperature to stay around 98.6 degrees fahrenheit?
this temperature keeps proteins stable: applying to much heat causes denaturation where they lose their form and function
spermatogenic activity works better at what temperature?
96 degrees fahrenheit; this is why we have evolved the testes outside of the body cavity
homeostasis is regulated by _____ that allow for a process to be adjusted by the outcome
feedback loops
what are the two types of feedback loops?
negative feedback and positive feedback
what are the components of a feedback loop?
receptor, control center, effector
receptor
monitors the value of some variable by detecting s stimulus (a change in the variable)
control center
establishes the set point and receives input from the receptor
effector
some are voluntary and some are involuntary: generates the response which can change the value of the variable (respond to stimuli !!!)
integral proteins
go through secretory pathway but aren’t secreted; proteins that are part of or fused in the cell (plasma) membrane
what are the four integral proteins?
channels, carriers, pumps, receptors
channels
voltage-gated, ligand-gated, “leak” (K+ leak channel)
carriers
Na+/glucose co-transport system
pumps
Na+/K+ ATPase pump
ATPase: catalytic subunit that can hydrolyze ATP (energy given off)
receptors
cell surface receptors for molecules that are hydrophilic; intracytoplasmic receptors that are hydrophobic
negative feedback
regulates most systems in the body: counteracts a change in a variable by decreasing the change to help maintain homeostasis by returning to the set point
what is a negative feedback mechanism?
body temperature
hypothalamus
regulates body temperature and sense of satiety by responding to internal and external stimuli and making adjustments
where can we find satiety centers and temperature regulation centers?
hypothalamus
satiety centers
GLP1 makes its way to hypothalamus and binds to receptors to makes us feel full
baroreceptors
detect pressure
why do we get a head rush as there are changes in blood pressure during exercise?
inadequate blood pressure is sending oxygen to the brain
how long does it take for the brain to die without oxygen?
6-8 minutes
where can we find baroreceptors?
aortic arch, kidneys, and major blood vessels
where do baroreceptors transmit information to?
blood pressure centers in medulla oblongata
positive feedback
when a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater; effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed
what is a positive feedback mechanism?
parturition (CHILD BIRTH), but also lactation and blood clotting
what is an example of a harmful positive feedback?
after a hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the heart’s ability to pump blood decrease
cervix
neck-like structure between uterus and vagina
oxytocin
produced from posterior pituitary; cause uterine contractions
parturition (positive feedback mechanism)
baroreceptors detect signals from increase in pressure of oxytocin causing uterine contractions, leading to more oxytocin production
true labor
increases in force and duration of smooth muscle found in myometrium of the uterus
false labor
braxton hicks contractions
epidural
can only be done within a range of cervical dialation
as humans, our ventral surface is our anterior surface, why?
we are upright and bipedal
true coelem
led to the evolution of body cavities, compartments, and connective tissue
serous membranes
cover the organs of body cavities and line the cavity and secrete serous fluid (sliding: less friction)
thick slippery fluids are going to _____ friction, which help us with the non-destruction of tissue
deminish
serous fluid
thick, slippery viscous fluids in a system; this has evolved so that there is less friction between tissues
inner balloon wall represents _____ serous membrane that covers the organ
visceral
visceral
of or pertaining to an organ (outside)
outer ballon wall represents _____ serous membrane line that lines the cavity
parietal
parietal
lines cavity
examples of serous membranes
pericardium, pleura, peritoneum
pleura
surrounds the lungs and line the thoracic cavity; contains pleural fluid
pericardium
surrounds the heart; contains pericardial fluid
peritoneum
surrounds many internal, abdominal organs and lines the abdominopelvic cavity; contains peritoneal fluid
transitional epithelium (urinary bladder)
expands and then goes back to original shape
-itis
inflammation
pericarditis
inflammation of the pericardium
-isy
medical condition or disease
pleurisy
inflammation of the pleura (LUNG)
visceral vs parietal pleural membranes - LUNGS
if one loses the pressure between these two membranes it results in a collapsed lung
peritonitis
inflammation of the peritoneum
what are the four types of macromolecules?
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids
anatomy and physiology levels (smallest to largest)
atoms, molecules, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
epithelial tissue
line body surfaces and are the major tissue type of glands (THINK exocrine and endocrine)
exocrine
waste (skin and into gastrointestinal tract); open contact maintained with exterior by way of ducts that open onto the free surface of the epithelium
endocrine
produce hormones (blood); no open contact with exterior; no ducts; have an extensive network of blood vessels
connective tissue
connection function
which type of tissue is most abundant?
connective
muscle tissue
rapidly shortens, producing force
what are the three types of muscle tissue?
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
nervous tissue
cells convey electrochemical signals for sensing, decision making, and control
what is the most ubiquitous protein?
collagen
tendons
connect muscle to bone
ligaments
connect bone to bone
strain
hurt tendons
sprain
hurt ligaments
-ectomy
removed
histologist (often a pathologist)
physician who often will examine the appearance of a sample from a patient - BIOPSY
non-muscle references to actin
METASTASIZE (cancer moving): uncontrolled mitotic division cancers that actin allows to move
pathologist
expert on the appearance of normal tissue and the appearance of abnormal tissue (essential part of diagnosis and treatment)
positive biopsy
- large, variably shaped nuclei
- many dividing cells; disorganized arrangement
- variation in size and shape
- loss of normal features
alveolus (alveoli)
cluster of grape structure that promotes gas exchange; so thin it’s clear, that allows diffusion of CO2/O2 down concentration gradient
surfactant layer
surface active substance: series of phospholipids and ions that keep alveoli open
in the lung, what is surfactant?
comes from surface active substance: has the same charge so it repels itself helping to keep the alveoli open
surfactant is produced in utero, for the fetus, between weeks _____
24-28
when a baby is born prematurely, surfactant is absent, how does this affect the baby?
lungs will not work properly
transitional epithelium
located in the bladder that has baroreceptors (detect pressure)
we lose billions of cells every day, but why does this not affect us much?
mitosis
apoptosis
programmed cell death: systematic lysosomal membrane degradation where lysosomal acidic hydrolase (enzymes) get out and eat the cell from the inside out
lysosomes
dissolve organelles
_____ got rid of tissues to create digits
apoptosis
for bone and cartilage, cells are classified as what?
blasts, cytes, clasts
blasts
BUILD! secrete collagen first then hydroxyapatite and create the matrix
hydroxyapatite
calcium and phosphate: Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
cytes
cell: maintaining (mature) cells and maintain the matrix
clasts
CLEAVE! break the matrix down for remodeling
osteoblasts
bone building cells: from bone
osteocytes
bone maintaining cells: maintain bone - located in lacunae with a rich blood supply
osteoclasts
bone cleaving cells (multinucleate): break bone down
fibroblasts
lay down collagen
what is the most commonly broken bone?
clavicle
extracellular matrix
contain collagen, reticular fibers, elastin fibers and ground substance along with a lot of interstitial fluid
interstitial
space between cells
elastin breaks down over time, what does this do to skin as we age?
skin stays up when pinched
elastin is exacerbated when ____
smoking, causing droopy skin
where is collagen mostly found?
connective tissue such as cartilage, bones, tendons, ligaments, and skin
more blood flow allows for _____ healing time, especially in cartilage
faster
less blood flow to a tissue, the _____ it takes to heal
longer
what are the three types of cartilage?
elastic, hyaline, fibrous (fibrocartilage)
ATPase
catalytic subunit, will hydrolyze ATP to make something in the natural world that does not want to happen thermodynamically, actually happen like pump ions against their gradient
gap junction
connector between cells; allow cells to share cytoplasm
testosterone
can turn on genes to repair tissues; found on facial hair and hair on ears
testosterone receptors
affect transcription, turning genes on/off
what structure are in nervous tissue?
neurons, glial cells, nerve
neurons
one cell: have the ability to produce electrical signals called action potentials
nerve
thousands of neurons bundled together
glial cells
support cells of the brain, spinal cord and nerves
astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, schwann cells
astrocytes
neural glue that keeps nervous system together and scavenger of ions that have gotten out of synapse
make up blood brain barrier (BBB) and blood testus barrier (BTB)
multipolar neuron
function in the decision making, interneuronal , and control functions of the nervous system
afferent
into the spinal cord: sensory
efferent
away from the central nervous system: motor
increase in surface area in neurons is associated with what descriptions?
flat, branched, folded
in neurons, more surface area leads to what?
greater efficiency in processes
biopsy
removal of tissues for diagnostic purposes
embryonic germ layers
form early in embryonic development and give rise to all tissues of the body
endoderm
inner layer: forms lining of digestive tract (gastrointestinal) and derivatives
mesoderm (EXAM ONE)
middle layer: forms tissues as such muscle, bone, blood vessels
ectoderm
outer layer: forms skin and neuroectoderm (which forms nervous system; neural crest cells give rise to peripheral nerves, skin pigment cells, medulla of the adrenal gland, and face tissues)
distinct tissue surfaces of epithelial tissue
apical (free), basal, and lateral surfaces
avascular
materials must move by diffusion from underlying connective tissue
any cell or tissue layer MORE than 6-8 cell lengths away (avascular) will die, why?
no oxygen = no ATP = NOT living
basement membrane
consists of two layer: basal lamina and reticular lamina
connects the basal layer to underlying tissue
made of specialized extracellular material secreted by the epithelial cells (collagen, glycoproteins, proteoglycans)
supports and guides cells migration during tissue repair; porous to allow movement of materials to and from the epithelial cells above
basal lamina
consists of lamina lucida and lamina densa
apical
side that abuts the lumen (space of a tube)
basolateral
basal and lateral combined
goblet cells (epithelial)
secrete mucus and mucous glands
mucocilliary escalator
in respiratory tree; goblet cells secrete mucus that trap impurities, while cilia beats in a way that phlegm comes up to the back of our throat
vaping and smoking erodes mucocilliary escalator, loses goblets cells and cilia, leading to what?
smokers cough
epithelial: simple
one layer of cells
epithelial: stratified
more than one layer
epithelial: pseudo stratified columnar
appears stratified, but all cells contact basement membrane, so it is in fact simple
epithelial: transitional
special type of stratified epithelium where the cell shape changes from cuboidal/columnar to squamous-like when stretched
squamous
flat, wide cell
cuboidal
cubic-shape cell
columnar
tall, rectangular-shaped
nonkeratinized
surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm
keratinized
cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced by a protein called keratin, and the cells are dead
mammary gland ducts
present in all mammals
primates
ONLY primates have pendulous in pectoral region, adipose tissue around mammary gland, and presence of breast tissue
urethra (1)
shorter in females, so pathogens don’t have as far to travel resulting in UTIs being more common in females
ureters (2)
carry urine from the kidney to the bladder
what happens when kidney stones move into the ureter?
they block urine flow, so the urine will backflow into the kidney causing pressure and pain
free surfaces of epithelium: smooth
reduce friction = reduce cell loss; called endothelium
cilia
move mucus across the surface of cells (ex: mucociliary escalator)
cell connection types
desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, tight junction, adhesion belt, gap junctions
desmosomes
spot weld: help cells adhere to eachother
tight junctions
complete welds between two cell membranes beside each other; hold cells together, form permeability barrier - no space between cellls
gap junctions
cells share cytoplasm and ion resulting in spontaneous depolarization; protein channels aid intercellular communication
hemidesmosomes
half of a desmosome; attach epithelial cells to basement membrane preventing movement of the tissue
spontaneous depolarization
one cell depolarizes, shares sodium with neighboring cell through gap junctions and depolarizes that cell and so on
adhesion belts
found just below tight junctions that help anchor epithelial cells to each other to prevent passage of materials between cells; provides additional strength to the tight junctions
intercalated discs
found between cardiac muscle cells; are composed of gap junctions and desmosomes
cystic fibrosis
autosomal recessive disorder; leads to build of mucous in the lungs, pancreas, sinuses, bile ducts, liver, brain which leads to death
merocrine or eccrine
most sweat glands are eccrine; exocytosis (most common type)
ex: salivary, pancreatic
sudoriferous glands secrete _____
sweat
apocrine
sweat glands in axillary regions (armpit and groin); pinched off fragments of gland cells
ex: mammary gland
holocrine
shedding of entire cell; sebaceous (oil) glands of the skin secrete a waxy oil called sebum keeping skin from drying out
mesoderm
leads to major blood vessels, muscle, and bone
what is the largest tendon in the body?
achilles tendon (calcaneal tendon)
what three muscles attach to the achilles tendon?
plantaris, gastrocnemius and soleus = plantar flexion
chondroblasts
form cartilage
chondrocytes
maintain cartilage
fibroblasts
form fibrous connective tissue
fibrocytes
maintain fibrous connective tissue
adipocytes
adipose or fat cells
mast cells
degranulate; important in inflammation by releasing heparin, histamine, and proteolytic enzymes in response to injury
histamine cause vasodilation, increasing what?
blood flow to area of inflammation
leukocytes
white blood cells that respond to injury or infection
macrophages
phagocytize to provide protection against foreign and injured cells
thrombocytes
platelets; cell fragments of hematopoietic cells involved in clotting
protein fibers of the matrix
collagen, reticular, elastic
collagen
most common protein in the body; strong, flexible, inelastic
reticular
fill spaces between tissues and organs; fine, collagenous, form branching networks
elastic
returns to its original shape after distension or compression; contains molecules of protein elastin that resemble coiled springs; molecules are cross-linked
hyaluronic acid
polysaccharide; good lubricant that helps retains water in the skin, allowing for a more full looking skin; helps skin stretch, so there are fewer wrinkles
also part of synovial fluid
classifications of connective tissue
connective tissue proper, supporting connective tissue, fluid connective tissue
connective tissue proper
loose and dense
supporting connective tissue
cartilage and bone
fluid connective tissue
blood and hematopoietic tissue (red and yellow bone marrow)
where can we find elastic cartilage?
ears and epiglottis (ALL E’s)
yellow adipose tissue
white at birth but turns yellow with age
brown adipose tissue
gets color from cytochromes and is specialized to generate heat
adipose tissue function
protect organs from injury
temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
JAW: a hinge and ball-and-socket joint all at the same time; jaw moves out of socket during normal function
types of bone
spongy and compact
formed elements of blood (fluid connective tissue)
erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), thrombocytes (platelets)
hematopoietic tissue
forms blood cells under the influence of erythropoietin that binds to receptors in red marrow cavities to up-regulate the number of red blood cells we have
erythropoietin (EPO)
“doping” from kidney: delivers more oxygen = more ATP, thus cellular activity is fortified
red bone marrow
hematopoietic tissue surrounded by a framework of reticular fibers; produces red and white blood cells
yellow bone marrow
yellow adipose tissue; does not produce blood cells
all three types of muscle tissue have _____ and _____
actin; myosin
parts of the neuron
cell body, axon, dendrites
cell body
contains nucleus
axon
cell process; conducts impulses away from cell body; usually only one per neuron
dendrites
cell processes; receive impulses from other neurons; can be many per neuron
perineum
skin between external anal sphincter and genitalia
synovial
line freely movable joints and produce fluid rich in hyaluronic acid
synovial fluid
decrease friction
body responds to tissue damage or infection with an _____
inflammatory response
what are the five fundamental elements of manifestation of inflammation?
redness, heat, swelling, pain, disturbed function
chemical mediators of inflammation
include histamine (inflammation), kinins, prostaglandins, leukotrienes
capillaries “leak” fluid all the time and the _____ system reclaims that fluid, but there is more swelling with an injury
lymphatic
epidermal growth factor (EGF)
secreted by injured cells; protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor EGFR
differentiation in EGF
receives a signal to it knows what to become
undifferentiated
most likely a stem cell
the most common types of cancer are from _____ because of its more rapid cell division
epithelial tissue
carcinomas
non-glandular epithelial tissue cancers; include nearly all lungs, breast, colon, prostate, and skin cancers
adenocarcinomas
derived from glandular epithelium
sacromas
relatively rare cancers of mesodermal tissue: connective and muscular tissue
increased tendency for bones breaking at older age is due to what?
hormone levels being low, resulting in less bone remodeling as we get older
integument
skin: largest organ in the human body and one of the major excretory organs
adipose tissue
fat
sebaceous gland
oil
sudoriferous gland
sweat
what are the five layers of the epidermis (superficial to deep)?
stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale
what two layers of the epidermis are already dead?
stratum corneum and stratum lucidum
what are the two layers of the dermis (superficial to deep)?
papillary layer and reticular layer
eccrine sudoriferous glands
most ALL sweat glands
apocrine sudoriferous glands
more oil in the sweat secretions; found in axillary (armpit) and groin regions
