anatomy and physiology exam one Flashcards
homeostasis
involuntary ability to maintain a balance in the body’s internal environment
living organisms respond to _____
stimuli
anatomy
scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure, such as the size and shape of a bone
scientific study of the structure of the body
physiology
scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things
scientific study of the function of the body
*how something is supposed to work
what are the five physiologically relevant ions that respond to stimuli?
sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, calcium
what are the four major organically relevant groups of organic molecules?
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids
ions move, leading to proteins changing conformation, what does this mean?
proteins change form, resulting in change in function
histology
study of tissues
x-ray - EXAM ONE
shortwave electromagnetic radiation moves through the body and is exposed on a photographic plate to form a radiograph
radiograph
creates a flat, two-dimensional image
on an x-ray, structures that are dense (such as bone) will appear _____, air will be _____, and other structures will be _____ depending on density
white; black; shades of gray
sutures
joints that do NOT move
*think gomphosis (teeth)
joints
where two bones come together
ultrasound - EXAM ONE
high-frequency sound waves pass into the body, striking internal organs, and bounce back to the receiver on the skin; visualized as a sonogram
ultrasounds can be used to identify gender between weeks _____ and _____ of pregnancy
16; 22
why may an ultrasound be used? (*RN QUESTION)
- to view the uterus and ovaries during pregnancy and monitor the developing baby’s health
- diagnose gallbladder disease
- evaluate blood flow
- guide a needle for biopsy or tumor treatment
- examine a breast lump
- check they thyroid gland
- find genital and prostate problems
extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy (ESWL)
ultrasound waves are used to break a kidney stone into smaller pieces, which can pass out with the urine
extracorporeal
situated or occurring outside the body
computed tomography (CT)
computer-analyzed x-ray images
digital subtraction angiography (DSA) - EXAM ONE
similar to a CT scan but uses a radiopaque dye (that is injected into the blood) to enhance differences in areas
angiography
a type of x-ray used to check blood vessels; special dye called a contrast agent is injected into blood to highlight blood vessels
angiograms
x-ray images created during an angiography
angio
vessels
hypoglycemia
low blood sugar; results in trouble for the brain, liver and erythrocytes
ischemia
no oxygen
a blood vessel to the heart that is blocked, results in what?
myocardial infarction: heart attack
a blood vessel to the brain that is blocked, results in what?
stroke
red blood cells (live for 120 days) have no mitochondria, meaning they undergo a lot of _____ to maintain existence
glycolysis
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
radio waves directed to a patient while under a large electromagnetic field; radio waves collected and analyzed by computer
an MRI is more effective at detecting some forms of cancer than a _____ scan
CT (computed tomography)
positron emission tomography (PET)
radioactively labeled glucose usage by a tissue is detected; provides info on metabolic state
tissues
group of cells with similar form and function that come together to make organ systems
what are the four major types of tissue?
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
pathology
structural and functional changes caused by disease
*disease: disruption in how something should work
pharmacology
alleviating medical condition with remedies
what is the largest organ in our body?
skin (integument)
what happens to the skin during cold weather?
skin gets dry and cracks, allowing bacteria and viruses to invade
what are the four hormones that help elevate low blood sugar (combat hypoglycemia)?
cortisol, adrenaline (epinephrine), growth hormone, glucagon
cortisol
stress hormone
glucagon
secreted from alpha cells of islets of langerhans of pancreas
what hormone helps lower blood sugar (combat hyperglycemia)?
insulin
insulin
secreted from beta cells
endo-
into the bloodstream
exo-
out through the gastrointestinal tract
_____ is worse in short-term
hypoglycemia
_____ is worse in long-term because it can cause blood to crystalize, which can block blood flow to tissues (ischemia)
hyperglycemia
which tissue types have resting membrane potentials (RMPs)?
all: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
which excitable tissue types use RMPs to generate action potentials (APs)?
muscle and nervous
resting membrane potentials (RMPs)
difference in charge across a membrane: inside of cell is negative and outside of cell is positive
secretion
implies something is NOT a waste and that a cell is exocytosing something
secreting
means to stay within the system, bind to receptors and do something positive
excretion
implies something is a waste: a metabolic byproduct that builds up to become toxic
what are the four major excretory organs?
kidneys, liver, skin, colon
what protects the kidneys?
ilium (hip bone), three lower ribs, and abdominal fat
colon
last part of the gastrointestinal tract
skin
largest organ in the human body; serves as a defense
epidermis
is NOT living; consists of five layers - two of which are already dead
bones
major source of calcium and blood cells; contain two types of marrow cavities
red marrow
active; allow for erythropoiesis, red blood cell production
yellow marrow
inactive; filled with fat
skeletal muscle
can control voluntarily and has an outward, visible manifestation
hemodynamics
blood flow changes to different parts of the body based on living things responding to stimuli (think blood flow to the skin)
how does hemodynamics function when we are scared and our fight or flight response is activated?
blood flow to skeletal muscle goes up, flow to the brain goes up, BUT flow to the skin goes down because if we are injured we don’t want to bleed out
how does hemodynamics function when we are cold?
blood flow increases to internal organ’s center of the body and blood flow to the skin goes down until we overheat, then we can dissipate heat (overheat, flush, dissipate heat)
what part of the brain is the last to evolve?
prefrontal cortices
prefrontal cortices
think COGNITION: what allows us to think, reason, cause/effect, and engage
which of the two is stronger: hormones or neurotransmitters?
hormones: this is a numbers game in terms of strength
arteries
carry blood away from the heart
veins
carry blood toward the heart
why have arteries evolved to be deeper in the body?
they have more blood pressure, so we want to protect them and avoid them bing hit
which three arteries are exposed?
carotid artery, jugular vein, femoral artery and vein
capillary beds are constantly leaking, even without injury, what system pick up this fluid?
lymphatic system
injury _____ leak of fluid from capillary beds
increases
edema
swelling
blood pH and CO2 have an _____ relationship
inverse: if CO2 is up, then pH is down
what are the three important processes of the medulla oblongata?
blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate
things being put into the gastrointestinal tract is later expurgated by the ______
colon (EXOCRINE)
anything going into the bloodstream is _____
endocrine
dialysis
machine that filters blood, when kidneys are down :(
metabolism
ability to use energy to perform vital functions; all chemical reactions of the body
responsiveness
ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary
growth
increase in size and/or number of cells
glucagon like protein I (GLP1)
makes you feel full
development
changes in an organism over time
differentiation
change from general to specific
morphogenesis
change in shape of tissues, organs, or the entire organism
reproduction
formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring
life
living things respond to stimuli
values of _____ (conditions) fluctuate around the _____ (ideal normal value) to establish a ____ of values
variables; set point; normal range
what is the normal human temperature?
98.6 degrees fahrenheit
why is it important for human temperature to stay around 98.6 degrees fahrenheit?
this temperature keeps proteins stable: applying to much heat causes denaturation where they lose their form and function
spermatogenic activity works better at what temperature?
96 degrees fahrenheit; this is why we have evolved the testes outside of the body cavity
homeostasis is regulated by _____ that allow for a process to be adjusted by the outcome
feedback loops
what are the two types of feedback loops?
negative feedback and positive feedback
what are the components of a feedback loop?
receptor, control center, effector
receptor
monitors the value of some variable by detecting s stimulus (a change in the variable)
control center
establishes the set point and receives input from the receptor
effector
some are voluntary and some are involuntary: generates the response which can change the value of the variable (respond to stimuli !!!)
integral proteins
go through secretory pathway but aren’t secreted; proteins that are part of or fused in the cell (plasma) membrane
what are the four integral proteins?
channels, carriers, pumps, receptors
channels
voltage-gated, ligand-gated, “leak” (K+ leak channel)
carriers
Na+/glucose co-transport system
pumps
Na+/K+ ATPase pump
ATPase: catalytic subunit that can hydrolyze ATP (energy given off)
receptors
cell surface receptors for molecules that are hydrophilic; intracytoplasmic receptors that are hydrophobic
negative feedback
regulates most systems in the body: counteracts a change in a variable by decreasing the change to help maintain homeostasis by returning to the set point
what is a negative feedback mechanism?
body temperature
hypothalamus
regulates body temperature and sense of satiety by responding to internal and external stimuli and making adjustments
where can we find satiety centers and temperature regulation centers?
hypothalamus
satiety centers
GLP1 makes its way to hypothalamus and binds to receptors to makes us feel full
baroreceptors
detect pressure
why do we get a head rush as there are changes in blood pressure during exercise?
inadequate blood pressure is sending oxygen to the brain
how long does it take for the brain to die without oxygen?
6-8 minutes
where can we find baroreceptors?
aortic arch, kidneys, and major blood vessels
where do baroreceptors transmit information to?
blood pressure centers in medulla oblongata
positive feedback
when a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater; effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed
what is a positive feedback mechanism?
parturition (CHILD BIRTH), but also lactation and blood clotting
what is an example of a harmful positive feedback?
after a hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the heart’s ability to pump blood decrease
cervix
neck-like structure between uterus and vagina
oxytocin
produced from posterior pituitary; cause uterine contractions
parturition (positive feedback mechanism)
baroreceptors detect signals from increase in pressure of oxytocin causing uterine contractions, leading to more oxytocin production
true labor
increases in force and duration of smooth muscle found in myometrium of the uterus
false labor
braxton hicks contractions
epidural
can only be done within a range of cervical dialation
as humans, our ventral surface is our anterior surface, why?
we are upright and bipedal