anatomy and physiology exam one Flashcards

1
Q

homeostasis

A

involuntary ability to maintain a balance in the body’s internal environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

living organisms respond to _____

A

stimuli

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

anatomy

A

scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure, such as the size and shape of a bone

scientific study of the structure of the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

physiology

A

scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things

scientific study of the function of the body

*how something is supposed to work

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

what are the five physiologically relevant ions that respond to stimuli?

A

sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, calcium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

what are the four major organically relevant groups of organic molecules?

A

carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

ions move, leading to proteins changing conformation, what does this mean?

A

proteins change form, resulting in change in function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

histology

A

study of tissues

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

x-ray - EXAM ONE

A

shortwave electromagnetic radiation moves through the body and is exposed on a photographic plate to form a radiograph

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

radiograph

A

creates a flat, two-dimensional image

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

on an x-ray, structures that are dense (such as bone) will appear _____, air will be _____, and other structures will be _____ depending on density

A

white; black; shades of gray

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

sutures

A

joints that do NOT move

*think gomphosis (teeth)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

joints

A

where two bones come together

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

ultrasound - EXAM ONE

A

high-frequency sound waves pass into the body, striking internal organs, and bounce back to the receiver on the skin; visualized as a sonogram

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

ultrasounds can be used to identify gender between weeks _____ and _____ of pregnancy

A

16; 22

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

why may an ultrasound be used? (*RN QUESTION)

A
  1. to view the uterus and ovaries during pregnancy and monitor the developing baby’s health
  2. diagnose gallbladder disease
  3. evaluate blood flow
  4. guide a needle for biopsy or tumor treatment
  5. examine a breast lump
  6. check they thyroid gland
  7. find genital and prostate problems
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy (ESWL)

A

ultrasound waves are used to break a kidney stone into smaller pieces, which can pass out with the urine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

extracorporeal

A

situated or occurring outside the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

computed tomography (CT)

A

computer-analyzed x-ray images

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

digital subtraction angiography (DSA) - EXAM ONE

A

similar to a CT scan but uses a radiopaque dye (that is injected into the blood) to enhance differences in areas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

angiography

A

a type of x-ray used to check blood vessels; special dye called a contrast agent is injected into blood to highlight blood vessels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

angiograms

A

x-ray images created during an angiography

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

angio

A

vessels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

hypoglycemia

A

low blood sugar; results in trouble for the brain, liver and erythrocytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

ischemia

A

no oxygen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

a blood vessel to the heart that is blocked, results in what?

A

myocardial infarction: heart attack

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

a blood vessel to the brain that is blocked, results in what?

A

stroke

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

red blood cells (live for 120 days) have no mitochondria, meaning they undergo a lot of _____ to maintain existence

A

glycolysis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

radio waves directed to a patient while under a large electromagnetic field; radio waves collected and analyzed by computer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

an MRI is more effective at detecting some forms of cancer than a _____ scan

A

CT (computed tomography)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

radioactively labeled glucose usage by a tissue is detected; provides info on metabolic state

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

tissues

A

group of cells with similar form and function that come together to make organ systems

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

what are the four major types of tissue?

A

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

pathology

A

structural and functional changes caused by disease

*disease: disruption in how something should work

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

pharmacology

A

alleviating medical condition with remedies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

what is the largest organ in our body?

A

skin (integument)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

what happens to the skin during cold weather?

A

skin gets dry and cracks, allowing bacteria and viruses to invade

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

what are the four hormones that help elevate low blood sugar (combat hypoglycemia)?

A

cortisol, adrenaline (epinephrine), growth hormone, glucagon

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

cortisol

A

stress hormone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

glucagon

A

secreted from alpha cells of islets of langerhans of pancreas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

what hormone helps lower blood sugar (combat hyperglycemia)?

A

insulin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

insulin

A

secreted from beta cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

endo-

A

into the bloodstream

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

exo-

A

out through the gastrointestinal tract

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

_____ is worse in short-term

A

hypoglycemia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

_____ is worse in long-term because it can cause blood to crystalize, which can block blood flow to tissues (ischemia)

A

hyperglycemia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

which tissue types have resting membrane potentials (RMPs)?

A

all: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

which excitable tissue types use RMPs to generate action potentials (APs)?

A

muscle and nervous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

resting membrane potentials (RMPs)

A

difference in charge across a membrane: inside of cell is negative and outside of cell is positive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

secretion

A

implies something is NOT a waste and that a cell is exocytosing something

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

secreting

A

means to stay within the system, bind to receptors and do something positive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

excretion

A

implies something is a waste: a metabolic byproduct that builds up to become toxic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

what are the four major excretory organs?

A

kidneys, liver, skin, colon

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

what protects the kidneys?

A

ilium (hip bone), three lower ribs, and abdominal fat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

colon

A

last part of the gastrointestinal tract

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

skin

A

largest organ in the human body; serves as a defense

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

epidermis

A

is NOT living; consists of five layers - two of which are already dead

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

bones

A

major source of calcium and blood cells; contain two types of marrow cavities

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

red marrow

A

active; allow for erythropoiesis, red blood cell production

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

yellow marrow

A

inactive; filled with fat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

skeletal muscle

A

can control voluntarily and has an outward, visible manifestation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

hemodynamics

A

blood flow changes to different parts of the body based on living things responding to stimuli (think blood flow to the skin)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

how does hemodynamics function when we are scared and our fight or flight response is activated?

A

blood flow to skeletal muscle goes up, flow to the brain goes up, BUT flow to the skin goes down because if we are injured we don’t want to bleed out

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

how does hemodynamics function when we are cold?

A

blood flow increases to internal organ’s center of the body and blood flow to the skin goes down until we overheat, then we can dissipate heat (overheat, flush, dissipate heat)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

what part of the brain is the last to evolve?

A

prefrontal cortices

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

prefrontal cortices

A

think COGNITION: what allows us to think, reason, cause/effect, and engage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

which of the two is stronger: hormones or neurotransmitters?

A

hormones: this is a numbers game in terms of strength

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

arteries

A

carry blood away from the heart

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

veins

A

carry blood toward the heart

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

why have arteries evolved to be deeper in the body?

A

they have more blood pressure, so we want to protect them and avoid them bing hit

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

which three arteries are exposed?

A

carotid artery, jugular vein, femoral artery and vein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

capillary beds are constantly leaking, even without injury, what system pick up this fluid?

A

lymphatic system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

injury _____ leak of fluid from capillary beds

A

increases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

edema

A

swelling

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

blood pH and CO2 have an _____ relationship

A

inverse: if CO2 is up, then pH is down

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

what are the three important processes of the medulla oblongata?

A

blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

things being put into the gastrointestinal tract is later expurgated by the ______

A

colon (EXOCRINE)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

anything going into the bloodstream is _____

A

endocrine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

dialysis

A

machine that filters blood, when kidneys are down :(

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

metabolism

A

ability to use energy to perform vital functions; all chemical reactions of the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

responsiveness

A

ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

growth

A

increase in size and/or number of cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

glucagon like protein I (GLP1)

A

makes you feel full

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

development

A

changes in an organism over time

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

differentiation

A

change from general to specific

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

morphogenesis

A

change in shape of tissues, organs, or the entire organism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

reproduction

A

formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

life

A

living things respond to stimuli

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

values of _____ (conditions) fluctuate around the _____ (ideal normal value) to establish a ____ of values

A

variables; set point; normal range

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

what is the normal human temperature?

A

98.6 degrees fahrenheit

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
91
Q

why is it important for human temperature to stay around 98.6 degrees fahrenheit?

A

this temperature keeps proteins stable: applying to much heat causes denaturation where they lose their form and function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
92
Q

spermatogenic activity works better at what temperature?

A

96 degrees fahrenheit; this is why we have evolved the testes outside of the body cavity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
93
Q

homeostasis is regulated by _____ that allow for a process to be adjusted by the outcome

A

feedback loops

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
94
Q

what are the two types of feedback loops?

A

negative feedback and positive feedback

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
95
Q

what are the components of a feedback loop?

A

receptor, control center, effector

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
96
Q

receptor

A

monitors the value of some variable by detecting s stimulus (a change in the variable)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
97
Q

control center

A

establishes the set point and receives input from the receptor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
98
Q

effector

A

some are voluntary and some are involuntary: generates the response which can change the value of the variable (respond to stimuli !!!)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
99
Q

integral proteins

A

go through secretory pathway but aren’t secreted; proteins that are part of or fused in the cell (plasma) membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
100
Q

what are the four integral proteins?

A

channels, carriers, pumps, receptors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
101
Q

channels

A

voltage-gated, ligand-gated, “leak” (K+ leak channel)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
102
Q

carriers

A

Na+/glucose co-transport system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
103
Q

pumps

A

Na+/K+ ATPase pump

ATPase: catalytic subunit that can hydrolyze ATP (energy given off)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
104
Q

receptors

A

cell surface receptors for molecules that are hydrophilic; intracytoplasmic receptors that are hydrophobic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
105
Q

negative feedback

A

regulates most systems in the body: counteracts a change in a variable by decreasing the change to help maintain homeostasis by returning to the set point

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
106
Q

what is a negative feedback mechanism?

A

body temperature

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
107
Q

hypothalamus

A

regulates body temperature and sense of satiety by responding to internal and external stimuli and making adjustments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
108
Q

where can we find satiety centers and temperature regulation centers?

A

hypothalamus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
109
Q

satiety centers

A

GLP1 makes its way to hypothalamus and binds to receptors to makes us feel full

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
110
Q

baroreceptors

A

detect pressure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
111
Q

why do we get a head rush as there are changes in blood pressure during exercise?

A

inadequate blood pressure is sending oxygen to the brain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
112
Q

how long does it take for the brain to die without oxygen?

A

6-8 minutes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
113
Q

where can we find baroreceptors?

A

aortic arch, kidneys, and major blood vessels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
114
Q

where do baroreceptors transmit information to?

A

blood pressure centers in medulla oblongata

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
115
Q

positive feedback

A

when a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater; effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
116
Q

what is a positive feedback mechanism?

A

parturition (CHILD BIRTH), but also lactation and blood clotting

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
117
Q

what is an example of a harmful positive feedback?

A

after a hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the heart’s ability to pump blood decrease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
118
Q

cervix

A

neck-like structure between uterus and vagina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
119
Q

oxytocin

A

produced from posterior pituitary; cause uterine contractions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
120
Q

parturition (positive feedback mechanism)

A

baroreceptors detect signals from increase in pressure of oxytocin causing uterine contractions, leading to more oxytocin production

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
121
Q

true labor

A

increases in force and duration of smooth muscle found in myometrium of the uterus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
122
Q

false labor

A

braxton hicks contractions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
123
Q

epidural

A

can only be done within a range of cervical dialation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
124
Q

as humans, our ventral surface is our anterior surface, why?

A

we are upright and bipedal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
125
Q

true coelem

A

led to the evolution of body cavities, compartments, and connective tissue

126
Q

serous membranes

A

cover the organs of body cavities and line the cavity and secrete serous fluid (sliding: less friction)

127
Q

thick slippery fluids are going to _____ friction, which help us with the non-destruction of tissue

A

deminish

128
Q

serous fluid

A

thick, slippery viscous fluids in a system; this has evolved so that there is less friction between tissues

129
Q

inner balloon wall represents _____ serous membrane that covers the organ

A

visceral

130
Q

visceral

A

of or pertaining to an organ (outside)

131
Q

outer ballon wall represents _____ serous membrane line that lines the cavity

A

parietal

132
Q

parietal

A

lines cavity

133
Q

examples of serous membranes

A

pericardium, pleura, peritoneum

134
Q

pleura

A

surrounds the lungs and line the thoracic cavity; contains pleural fluid

135
Q

pericardium

A

surrounds the heart; contains pericardial fluid

136
Q

peritoneum

A

surrounds many internal, abdominal organs and lines the abdominopelvic cavity; contains peritoneal fluid

137
Q

transitional epithelium (urinary bladder)

A

expands and then goes back to original shape

138
Q

-itis

A

inflammation

139
Q

pericarditis

A

inflammation of the pericardium

140
Q

-isy

A

medical condition or disease

141
Q

pleurisy

A

inflammation of the pleura (LUNG)

142
Q

visceral vs parietal pleural membranes - LUNGS

A

if one loses the pressure between these two membranes it results in a collapsed lung

143
Q

peritonitis

A

inflammation of the peritoneum

144
Q

what are the four types of macromolecules?

A

carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids

145
Q

anatomy and physiology levels (smallest to largest)

A

atoms, molecules, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

146
Q

epithelial tissue

A

line body surfaces and are the major tissue type of glands (THINK exocrine and endocrine)

147
Q

exocrine

A

waste (skin and into gastrointestinal tract); open contact maintained with exterior by way of ducts that open onto the free surface of the epithelium

148
Q

endocrine

A

produce hormones (blood); no open contact with exterior; no ducts; have an extensive network of blood vessels

149
Q

connective tissue

A

connection function

150
Q

which type of tissue is most abundant?

A

connective

151
Q

muscle tissue

A

rapidly shortens, producing force

152
Q

what are the three types of muscle tissue?

A

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

153
Q

nervous tissue

A

cells convey electrochemical signals for sensing, decision making, and control

154
Q

what is the most ubiquitous protein?

A

collagen

155
Q

tendons

A

connect muscle to bone

156
Q

ligaments

A

connect bone to bone

157
Q

strain

A

hurt tendons

158
Q

sprain

A

hurt ligaments

159
Q

-ectomy

A

removed

160
Q

histologist (often a pathologist)

A

physician who often will examine the appearance of a sample from a patient - BIOPSY

161
Q

non-muscle references to actin

A

METASTASIZE (cancer moving): uncontrolled mitotic division cancers that actin allows to move

162
Q

pathologist

A

expert on the appearance of normal tissue and the appearance of abnormal tissue (essential part of diagnosis and treatment)

163
Q

positive biopsy

A
  1. large, variably shaped nuclei
  2. many dividing cells; disorganized arrangement
  3. variation in size and shape
  4. loss of normal features
164
Q

alveolus (alveoli)

A

cluster of grape structure that promotes gas exchange; so thin it’s clear, that allows diffusion of CO2/O2 down concentration gradient

165
Q

surfactant layer

A

surface active substance: series of phospholipids and ions that keep alveoli open

166
Q

in the lung, what is surfactant?

A

comes from surface active substance: has the same charge so it repels itself helping to keep the alveoli open

167
Q

surfactant is produced in utero, for the fetus, between weeks _____

A

24-28

168
Q

when a baby is born prematurely, surfactant is absent, how does this affect the baby?

A

lungs will not work properly

169
Q

transitional epithelium

A

located in the bladder that has baroreceptors (detect pressure)

170
Q

we lose billions of cells every day, but why does this not affect us much?

A

mitosis

171
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death: systematic lysosomal membrane degradation where lysosomal acidic hydrolase (enzymes) get out and eat the cell from the inside out

172
Q

lysosomes

A

dissolve organelles

173
Q

_____ got rid of tissues to create digits

A

apoptosis

174
Q

for bone and cartilage, cells are classified as what?

A

blasts, cytes, clasts

175
Q

blasts

A

BUILD! secrete collagen first then hydroxyapatite and create the matrix

176
Q

hydroxyapatite

A

calcium and phosphate: Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

177
Q

cytes

A

cell: maintaining (mature) cells and maintain the matrix

178
Q

clasts

A

CLEAVE! break the matrix down for remodeling

179
Q

osteoblasts

A

bone building cells: from bone

180
Q

osteocytes

A

bone maintaining cells: maintain bone - located in lacunae with a rich blood supply

181
Q

osteoclasts

A

bone cleaving cells (multinucleate): break bone down

182
Q

fibroblasts

A

lay down collagen

183
Q

what is the most commonly broken bone?

A

clavicle

184
Q

extracellular matrix

A

contain collagen, reticular fibers, elastin fibers and ground substance along with a lot of interstitial fluid

185
Q

interstitial

A

space between cells

186
Q

elastin breaks down over time, what does this do to skin as we age?

A

skin stays up when pinched

187
Q

elastin is exacerbated when ____

A

smoking, causing droopy skin

188
Q

where is collagen mostly found?

A

connective tissue such as cartilage, bones, tendons, ligaments, and skin

189
Q

more blood flow allows for _____ healing time, especially in cartilage

A

faster

190
Q

less blood flow to a tissue, the _____ it takes to heal

A

longer

191
Q

what are the three types of cartilage?

A

elastic, hyaline, fibrous (fibrocartilage)

192
Q

ATPase

A

catalytic subunit, will hydrolyze ATP to make something in the natural world that does not want to happen thermodynamically, actually happen like pump ions against their gradient

193
Q

gap junction

A

connector between cells; allow cells to share cytoplasm

194
Q

testosterone

A

can turn on genes to repair tissues; found on facial hair and hair on ears

195
Q

testosterone receptors

A

affect transcription, turning genes on/off

196
Q

what structure are in nervous tissue?

A

neurons, glial cells, nerve

197
Q

neurons

A

one cell: have the ability to produce electrical signals called action potentials

198
Q

nerve

A

thousands of neurons bundled together

199
Q

glial cells

A

support cells of the brain, spinal cord and nerves

astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, schwann cells

200
Q

astrocytes

A

neural glue that keeps nervous system together and scavenger of ions that have gotten out of synapse

make up blood brain barrier (BBB) and blood testus barrier (BTB)

201
Q

multipolar neuron

A

function in the decision making, interneuronal , and control functions of the nervous system

202
Q

afferent

A

into the spinal cord: sensory

203
Q

efferent

A

away from the central nervous system: motor

204
Q

increase in surface area in neurons is associated with what descriptions?

A

flat, branched, folded

205
Q

in neurons, more surface area leads to what?

A

greater efficiency in processes

206
Q

biopsy

A

removal of tissues for diagnostic purposes

207
Q

embryonic germ layers

A

form early in embryonic development and give rise to all tissues of the body

208
Q

endoderm

A

inner layer: forms lining of digestive tract (gastrointestinal) and derivatives

209
Q

mesoderm (EXAM ONE)

A

middle layer: forms tissues as such muscle, bone, blood vessels

210
Q

ectoderm

A

outer layer: forms skin and neuroectoderm (which forms nervous system; neural crest cells give rise to peripheral nerves, skin pigment cells, medulla of the adrenal gland, and face tissues)

211
Q

distinct tissue surfaces of epithelial tissue

A

apical (free), basal, and lateral surfaces

212
Q

avascular

A

materials must move by diffusion from underlying connective tissue

213
Q

any cell or tissue layer MORE than 6-8 cell lengths away (avascular) will die, why?

A

no oxygen = no ATP = NOT living

214
Q

basement membrane

A

consists of two layer: basal lamina and reticular lamina

connects the basal layer to underlying tissue

made of specialized extracellular material secreted by the epithelial cells (collagen, glycoproteins, proteoglycans)

supports and guides cells migration during tissue repair; porous to allow movement of materials to and from the epithelial cells above

215
Q

basal lamina

A

consists of lamina lucida and lamina densa

216
Q

apical

A

side that abuts the lumen (space of a tube)

217
Q

basolateral

A

basal and lateral combined

218
Q

goblet cells (epithelial)

A

secrete mucus and mucous glands

219
Q

mucocilliary escalator

A

in respiratory tree; goblet cells secrete mucus that trap impurities, while cilia beats in a way that phlegm comes up to the back of our throat

220
Q

vaping and smoking erodes mucocilliary escalator, loses goblets cells and cilia, leading to what?

A

smokers cough

221
Q

epithelial: simple

A

one layer of cells

222
Q

epithelial: stratified

A

more than one layer

223
Q

epithelial: pseudo stratified columnar

A

appears stratified, but all cells contact basement membrane, so it is in fact simple

224
Q

epithelial: transitional

A

special type of stratified epithelium where the cell shape changes from cuboidal/columnar to squamous-like when stretched

225
Q

squamous

A

flat, wide cell

226
Q

cuboidal

A

cubic-shape cell

227
Q

columnar

A

tall, rectangular-shaped

228
Q

nonkeratinized

A

surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm

229
Q

keratinized

A

cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced by a protein called keratin, and the cells are dead

230
Q

mammary gland ducts

A

present in all mammals

231
Q

primates

A

ONLY primates have pendulous in pectoral region, adipose tissue around mammary gland, and presence of breast tissue

232
Q

urethra (1)

A

shorter in females, so pathogens don’t have as far to travel resulting in UTIs being more common in females

233
Q

ureters (2)

A

carry urine from the kidney to the bladder

234
Q

what happens when kidney stones move into the ureter?

A

they block urine flow, so the urine will backflow into the kidney causing pressure and pain

235
Q

free surfaces of epithelium: smooth

A

reduce friction = reduce cell loss; called endothelium

236
Q

cilia

A

move mucus across the surface of cells (ex: mucociliary escalator)

237
Q

cell connection types

A

desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, tight junction, adhesion belt, gap junctions

238
Q

desmosomes

A

spot weld: help cells adhere to eachother

239
Q

tight junctions

A

complete welds between two cell membranes beside each other; hold cells together, form permeability barrier - no space between cellls

240
Q

gap junctions

A

cells share cytoplasm and ion resulting in spontaneous depolarization; protein channels aid intercellular communication

241
Q

hemidesmosomes

A

half of a desmosome; attach epithelial cells to basement membrane preventing movement of the tissue

242
Q

spontaneous depolarization

A

one cell depolarizes, shares sodium with neighboring cell through gap junctions and depolarizes that cell and so on

243
Q

adhesion belts

A

found just below tight junctions that help anchor epithelial cells to each other to prevent passage of materials between cells; provides additional strength to the tight junctions

244
Q

intercalated discs

A

found between cardiac muscle cells; are composed of gap junctions and desmosomes

245
Q

cystic fibrosis

A

autosomal recessive disorder; leads to build of mucous in the lungs, pancreas, sinuses, bile ducts, liver, brain which leads to death

246
Q

merocrine or eccrine

A

most sweat glands are eccrine; exocytosis (most common type)

ex: salivary, pancreatic

247
Q

sudoriferous glands secrete _____

A

sweat

248
Q

apocrine

A

sweat glands in axillary regions (armpit and groin); pinched off fragments of gland cells

ex: mammary gland

249
Q

holocrine

A

shedding of entire cell; sebaceous (oil) glands of the skin secrete a waxy oil called sebum keeping skin from drying out

250
Q

mesoderm

A

leads to major blood vessels, muscle, and bone

251
Q

what is the largest tendon in the body?

A

achilles tendon (calcaneal tendon)

252
Q

what three muscles attach to the achilles tendon?

A

plantaris, gastrocnemius and soleus = plantar flexion

253
Q

chondroblasts

A

form cartilage

254
Q

chondrocytes

A

maintain cartilage

255
Q

fibroblasts

A

form fibrous connective tissue

256
Q

fibrocytes

A

maintain fibrous connective tissue

257
Q

adipocytes

A

adipose or fat cells

258
Q

mast cells

A

degranulate; important in inflammation by releasing heparin, histamine, and proteolytic enzymes in response to injury

259
Q

histamine cause vasodilation, increasing what?

A

blood flow to area of inflammation

260
Q

leukocytes

A

white blood cells that respond to injury or infection

261
Q

macrophages

A

phagocytize to provide protection against foreign and injured cells

262
Q

thrombocytes

A

platelets; cell fragments of hematopoietic cells involved in clotting

263
Q

protein fibers of the matrix

A

collagen, reticular, elastic

264
Q

collagen

A

most common protein in the body; strong, flexible, inelastic

265
Q

reticular

A

fill spaces between tissues and organs; fine, collagenous, form branching networks

266
Q

elastic

A

returns to its original shape after distension or compression; contains molecules of protein elastin that resemble coiled springs; molecules are cross-linked

267
Q

hyaluronic acid

A

polysaccharide; good lubricant that helps retains water in the skin, allowing for a more full looking skin; helps skin stretch, so there are fewer wrinkles

also part of synovial fluid

268
Q

classifications of connective tissue

A

connective tissue proper, supporting connective tissue, fluid connective tissue

269
Q

connective tissue proper

A

loose and dense

270
Q

supporting connective tissue

A

cartilage and bone

271
Q

fluid connective tissue

A

blood and hematopoietic tissue (red and yellow bone marrow)

272
Q

where can we find elastic cartilage?

A

ears and epiglottis (ALL E’s)

273
Q

yellow adipose tissue

A

white at birth but turns yellow with age

274
Q

brown adipose tissue

A

gets color from cytochromes and is specialized to generate heat

275
Q

adipose tissue function

A

protect organs from injury

276
Q

temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

A

JAW: a hinge and ball-and-socket joint all at the same time; jaw moves out of socket during normal function

277
Q

types of bone

A

spongy and compact

278
Q

formed elements of blood (fluid connective tissue)

A

erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), thrombocytes (platelets)

279
Q

hematopoietic tissue

A

forms blood cells under the influence of erythropoietin that binds to receptors in red marrow cavities to up-regulate the number of red blood cells we have

280
Q

erythropoietin (EPO)

A

“doping” from kidney: delivers more oxygen = more ATP, thus cellular activity is fortified

281
Q

red bone marrow

A

hematopoietic tissue surrounded by a framework of reticular fibers; produces red and white blood cells

282
Q

yellow bone marrow

A

yellow adipose tissue; does not produce blood cells

283
Q

all three types of muscle tissue have _____ and _____

A

actin; myosin

284
Q

parts of the neuron

A

cell body, axon, dendrites

285
Q

cell body

A

contains nucleus

286
Q

axon

A

cell process; conducts impulses away from cell body; usually only one per neuron

287
Q

dendrites

A

cell processes; receive impulses from other neurons; can be many per neuron

288
Q

perineum

A

skin between external anal sphincter and genitalia

289
Q

synovial

A

line freely movable joints and produce fluid rich in hyaluronic acid

290
Q

synovial fluid

A

decrease friction

291
Q

body responds to tissue damage or infection with an _____

A

inflammatory response

292
Q

what are the five fundamental elements of manifestation of inflammation?

A

redness, heat, swelling, pain, disturbed function

293
Q

chemical mediators of inflammation

A

include histamine (inflammation), kinins, prostaglandins, leukotrienes

294
Q

capillaries “leak” fluid all the time and the _____ system reclaims that fluid, but there is more swelling with an injury

A

lymphatic

295
Q

epidermal growth factor (EGF)

A

secreted by injured cells; protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor EGFR

296
Q

differentiation in EGF

A

receives a signal to it knows what to become

297
Q

undifferentiated

A

most likely a stem cell

298
Q

the most common types of cancer are from _____ because of its more rapid cell division

A

epithelial tissue

299
Q

carcinomas

A

non-glandular epithelial tissue cancers; include nearly all lungs, breast, colon, prostate, and skin cancers

300
Q

adenocarcinomas

A

derived from glandular epithelium

301
Q

sacromas

A

relatively rare cancers of mesodermal tissue: connective and muscular tissue

302
Q

increased tendency for bones breaking at older age is due to what?

A

hormone levels being low, resulting in less bone remodeling as we get older

303
Q

integument

A

skin: largest organ in the human body and one of the major excretory organs

304
Q

adipose tissue

A

fat

305
Q

sebaceous gland

A

oil

306
Q

sudoriferous gland

A

sweat

307
Q

what are the five layers of the epidermis (superficial to deep)?

A

stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale

308
Q

what two layers of the epidermis are already dead?

A

stratum corneum and stratum lucidum

309
Q

what are the two layers of the dermis (superficial to deep)?

A

papillary layer and reticular layer

310
Q

eccrine sudoriferous glands

A

most ALL sweat glands

311
Q

apocrine sudoriferous glands

A

more oil in the sweat secretions; found in axillary (armpit) and groin regions