anatomy and physiology exam four Flashcards

Question

-tropic and -tropin

Answer 1

hormone that affects another hormone

Answer 2

24-48 hour muscle soreness after heavy lifting; leads to tiny micro-tears in the actin and myosin in muscles that need to be repaired by testosterone levels going up (in BOTH genders)

Answer 3

increase in testosterone turns on genes to promote tissue repair

Answer 4

steroid hormone that turns on genes to repair tissues

Answer 5

stem cell recruitment

Answer 6

adding nuclei from satellite stem cells that donate its nucleus in order for more genes for actin and myosin for transcription and translation to increase - proteins yay testosterone and genetics

Answer 7

necrosis (tissue death); keeps the voltage-gated calcium channel open allowing acetylcholine to be released in synaptic cleft, resulting in increased skeletal muscle contraction that leads to tetany: paralysis *venoms are vasodilators resulting in decreased resistance (low blood pressure)

Answer 8

leads to necrosis (tissue death)

Answer 9

occur when veins and valves give out or are blown out; leads to back flow

Answer 10

nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

Answer 11

peptide and steroid hormones

Answer 12

hydrophilic; go through rough endoplasmic reticulum to golgi to be vesicalized; it is stored and then released when needed bind to cell surface receptors (2nd messenger) and has fast effects (seconds to minutes) ex: adrenaline/epinephrine

Answer 13

from cholesterol, so they are hydrophobic; made and released in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum THINK "-one" and "-ol" bind to intracytoplasmic receptors; affects transcription by turning genes on or off and has slow effects (hours to days) ex: testosterone

Answer 14

vesicle neurotransmitter is made in the soma (body) of a neuron; rotary proteins move the vesicles from the soma to the pre-synaptic membrane; action potential travels down the axon to the pre-synaptic terminal, causing a depolarization of the membrane; depolarization causes the opening of the voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium in; calcium forces the vesicle to fuse with the synaptic terminal, further releasing acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis

Answer 15

increase surface area

Answer 16

site of all biosynthesis

Answer 17

main function is to transport *Dynein and Kinesin*

Answer 18

action potential starts at threshold; then sodium coming in through voltage-gated sodium channel opened at threshold starts making the cell more positive BUT the channel closes at +35 millivolts

Answer 19

potassium comes out through voltage-gated potassium channel opened at +35 millivolts making the cell more negative BUT begins to close around the RMP but ACTUALLY closes at -90 millivolts

Answer 20

goes below resting membrane potential so the inside of the cell is even more negative; less active because we are further from threshold

Answer 21

1) we need a stronger stimulus to get back to threshold or 2) we are so hyperpolarized that it no longer functions

Answer 22

it is okay when it only hyperpolarizes the pain centers

Answer 23

controls left side of body

Answer 24

controls right side of body

Answer 25

wrinkles of brain and branching dendrites

Answer 26

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

Answer 27

consists of the diencephalon and telencephalon diencephalon: consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus (contains pineal gland that produces melatonin which regulates our sleep-wake cycle) telencephalon: consists of cerebral hemispheres (cortex), basal nuclei, limbic system

Answer 28

alertness, awakeness, consciousness contains reticular activating centers: wakefulness (caffeine hits receptors here)

Answer 29

functions as a network of neurons that regulate sleep-wake transition and arousal; located in the brainstem above the spinal cord as well as the midbrain; acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, and histamine are the neurotransmitters involved

Answer 30

consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum medulla oblongata: blood pressure, heart rate, respiration, blood flow, swallowing, vommitting pons: balance and posture cerebellum: *coordination (spatial equilibrium), muscle tone, intricate movements, balance and posture

Answer 31

midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord

Answer 32

balance and posture

Answer 33

controls blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate, blood flow, swallowing, vommitting

Answer 34

voluntary movements and thoughts, *cognition (ability to think, reason, cause and effect), *long-term memory

Answer 35

taste (gustation), temperature, touch, pressure, vibration

Answer 36

emotions, speech, *smell (olfaction), *auditory stimuli, *short-term memory

Answer 37

taste and touch are found in the parietal lobe, hearing and smell are found in the temporal lobe, vision is found in the occipital lobe

Answer 38

*coordination (spatial equilibrium), muscle tone, intricate movements, balance and posture

Answer 39

conveys information to and from the brain and generates basic patterns of locomotion produces reflexes: walking, urination, sex organ function

Answer 40

body's automatic response to a stimulus example: knee-jerk reflex

Answer 41

endocrine, exocrine, paracrine, artocrine

Answer 42

secretes hormones into the blood; islets of langerhans

Answer 43

alpha, *beta, delta

Answer 44

produces glucagon elevates blood sugar

Answer 45

produce insulin lowers blood sugar

Answer 46

produce somatostatin inhibiting gastrointestinal tract function

Answer 47

secretes into the gastrointestinal tract; usually enzymes

Answer 48

affects tissue "near" the pancreas

Answer 49

affects itself

Answer 50

glucagon: elevates blood sugar insulin: lowers blood sugar

Answer 51

beta cells in the islets of langerhans

Answer 52

regulates glucose levels by transporting glucose into muscle and fat cells; GLUT-4 in the cell membrane lowers blood sugar

Answer 53

low blood sugar

Answer 54

high blood sugar

Answer 55

GLYCOSYLATION: untreated hyperglycemia will cause sugars to crystalize, blocking blood flow; further turns into "sweet urine" or diabetes

Answer 56

congenital (born with it); we cannot produce insulin at all because beta cells, that makes insulin, in the pancreas are attacked by the immune system

Answer 57

usually during 40s/50s/60s; weight increases while physical activity decreases; we can produce insulin BUT there is insulin resistance (we are not using it well)

Answer 58

issues with 1) amount of insulin or 2) tyrosine kinase receptor

Answer 59

receptor that adds phosphate

Answer 60

consists of brain and spinal cord; where information is processed

Answer 61

consists of 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves; somatic and autonomic peripheral nervous system transmits information to and from the central nervous system, regulates movement, and the internal environment afferent neurons transmit information to the central nervous system and efferent neurons transmit information away from the central nervous system as a response

Answer 62

voluntary; afferent and efferent; carries signals to skeletal muscles

Answer 63

sensory; into the spinal cord; bipolar neuron

Answer 64

motor; away from the spinal cord; skeletal muscle

Answer 65

involuntary; three divisions including sympathetic, parasympathetic, enteric; regulates smooth and cardiac muscles

Answer 66

fight or flight (regulates arousal and energy generation); not default; stronger and faster because hormones are from adrenal medulla; 1) sympathetic chain and 2) hormones such as adrenaline/epinephrine; thoracic-lumbar nervous system

Answer 67

short pre-ganglionic receptors of acetylcholine and long post-ganglionic receptors of norepinephrine

Answer 68

rest and digest (antagonistic effects on target organs and promotes calming and a return to these "rest and digest" functions); default system; weaker; cranio-sacral nervous system

Answer 69

long pre-ganglionic receptors of acetylcholine and short post-ganglionic receptors of acetylcholine

Answer 70

both systems have a pre-ganglia and a post-ganglia and a ganglion

Answer 71

a group of cell somas (body) outside the central nervous system

Answer 72

sensory; cluster of neuronal cell bodies located outside the central nervous system

Answer 73

gastrointestinal tract

Answer 74

refractory period

Answer 75

"absolutely" no new action potentials during this time; voltage-gated sodium channel "gates" are resetting THINK during repolarization

Answer 76

cardiac muscle action potential due to potassium out and calcium in counteracting each other in cardiac muscle; means there is a longer absolute refractory period so that cardiac muscle cannot summate the twitches = no cardiac tetany but inhibiting the cardiac muscle summation promotes ventricular emptying because of longer, sustained contraction of the heart

Answer 77

a new action potential can be generated but there would need to be a stronger stimulus to get back to threshold THINK during hyperpolarization

Answer 78

action potential jumps from node to node; myelin

Answer 79

done by schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system

Answer 80

myelinated sheaths are faster sheaths (thicker) length of axon does not matter but DIAMETER of axon does as thicker equals a faster nerve

Answer 81

ion channel that is always open, allowing ions and substances to pass through; passive channels or non-gated channels

Answer 82

transmembrane protein that opens and closes in response to changes in a cell's electrical potential

Answer 83

protein embedded in a cell membrane that acts as a gate, allowing specific ions to pass through only when a signaling molecule (known as a ligand) binds to it opening the channel by triggering a conformational change in the receptor protein

Answer 84

membrane protein that moves molecules across a cell membrane

Answer 85

generates a membrane potential by creating an electrochemical gradient across the membrane (against the concentration gradient)

Answer 86

is sudden (hour to days) and progressive, causing muscle weakness up to paralysis (skeletal)

Answer 87

antecedent infections (no known cause)

Answer 88

first a virus (like mononucleosis), then a bacterial infection (like a tonsil infection), and finally a respiratory infection (like pneumonia) 1. viruses 2. bacterial infections 3. respiratory infections

Answer 89

local or systemic

Answer 90

"-caines" that block the source and usually block the voltage-gated sodium channel: local injection blocks and stops depolarization, stopping the transmission of pain signals from the site of injury to the brain

Answer 91

block pain no matter the source; usually opiates/narcotics that reward pathways of the brain meaning they activate the brain's pleasure pathways, reducing the perception of pain hyperpolarization of the pain centers in the central nervous system are not processed ex: endorphins (endogenous) from FLATPEG

Answer 92

a wave of depolarization along or down a membrane (inside of the cell becomes more positive); all or nothing electrochemical response under normal circumstances - ions move! (once an AP starts it cannot be stopped!); only muscle and nervous tissue use RMPs to form APs only occur in excitable cells; have a minimal stimulus (threshold potential); are "digital" or "all-or-none" responses; are self propagating chain reactions that occur without decrement transmit signals over long distances; usually sodium and potassium; no summation

Answer 93

determine whether or not an action potential is generated barrage of EPSPs of sodium and potassium + IPSPs of chlorine; summation

Answer 94

graded potentials between a resting membrane potential and threshold

Answer 95

excitatory post-synaptic potentials

Answer 96

inhibitory post-synaptic potentials

Answer 97

asks if EPSP + IPSP reach threshold

Answer 98

PHYSICAL synapses; result in spontaneous depolarization due to cells being connected and sharing cytoplasms and ions

Answer 99

small molecules that can be rapidly synthesized and rapidly destroyed or removed from the synapse examples: acetylcholine

Answer 100

1. neurotransmitter is made in the soma of a neuron 2. rotary proteins (dynein and kinesin) move vesicles from the soma to the pre-synaptic membrane 3. action potential travels down the axon towards pre-synaptic terminal, causing a depolarization of the membrane 4. depolarization causes the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium in 5. calcium forces the vesicle to fuse with the synaptic cleft, further releasing acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis

Answer 101

1. neurotransmitters can be enzymatically degraded: acetylcholinesterase can be inhibited by sarin nerve gas - acetylcholine levels go WAY up resulting in intense skeletal muscle contraction 2. part of or all of the neurotransmitter can be taken up by re-uptake proteins on the pre-synaptic side: selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI) - serotonin levels go up in the brain slowly and only in the brain = "happier" 3. sometimes neurotransmitters escape from the synapse and are usually scavenged by astrocytes

Answer 102

selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI), serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SRI), cocaine

Answer 103

LEGAL blocks in the brain; antidepressants; take a long time to be effective (2-4 weeks)

Answer 104

methamphetamines that are ILLEGAL blocks all over the body; serotonin levels go up but production in the brain goes down (FEEDBACK INHIBITION); work very fast and is short term

Answer 105

serotonin and dopamine

Answer 106

fast volted-gated channel blockers (local anesthetic) and a dopamine re-uptake inhibitor (dopamine levels in the brain go up)

Answer 107

convergent, divergent, reverberating, parallel after discharge

Answer 108

input from many sources and/or nerves to a single source example: it is time to get up in the morning

Answer 109

input to many sources and/or nerves originating from one source example: you want to flex your right bicep

Answer 110

repetitive example: walking and breathing

Answer 111

most complicated; represents different cognitive elements of your brain; its training, its experiences, and your brain's formal education and assessment example: cognition and figuring out a physics problem

Answer 112

narrowing of blood vessels, reduces blood flow and increases blood pressure alpha-one adrenergic resistance goes up

Answer 113

widening of blood vessels, increases blood flow and decreases blood pressure alpha-two adrenergic resistance goes down

Answer 114

allow for binding, fusion, and exocytosis of acetylcholine vesicles

Answer 115

interferes with SNAP and SNARES: 1) mild paralysis of facial muscles that get rid of wrinkles and make one look younger and 2) botox can be a migraine headache prevention

Answer 116

dendrites and fissures

Answer 117

cognition, long-term memory, and personality

Answer 118

depression that increases surface area; has a greater number of neurons that can be packed in the cerebral cortex

Answer 119

deeper and more prominent than a sulcus; increases surface area

Answer 120

let's hemispheres talk and communicate with each other

Answer 121

basal ganglia structure located in the midbrain; a modulator for the pyramidal tracts which are the main pathways for voluntary movement being sent to the spinal cord; produces dopamine which helps fine tune movement signals sent by pyramidal tracts

Answer 122

a degeneration of dopamine producing neurons are lost in the substantia nigra which means pyramidal tracts can't send out signals properly, resulting in impaired motor control (tremors + movement and balance are affected)

Answer 123

of the midbrain and look like pyramids

Answer 124

made up of the amygdala, mammillary bodies, the stria medullaris, and the ventral nuclei of gudden; interacts with the basal ganglia (if you see something scary) known as the paleomammalian cortex

Answer 125

plays a role in memory, decision making, and emotional responses

Answer 126

displays our survival mechanism of fight or flight; it gets us ready to either face the threat or escape from it

Answer 127

on the LEFT brain the broca's area is associated with speech formation and execution while wernicke's area is associated with speech language comprehension and interpretation

Answer 128

satiety centers (full) located in diencephalon (forebrain)

Answer 129

located in and around the brain and spinal cord as well as in the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid matter and pia matter within the ventricles of the brain; cushions the brain and provides nutrients; made by ependymal cells

Answer 130

swelling occurs, but the brain has no where to go because of the cranium holding it in place leading to an increase in pressure

Answer 131

three layers that protect the brain and spinal cord: dura matter (outer layer), arachnoid matter (middle layer), and pia matter (inner layer); primary function is to protect the central nervous system (brain + spinal cord)

Answer 132

between L3 and L4

Answer 133

procedure where local anesthetic is injected into the epidural space; works outside the dura matter to safely manage pain

Answer 134

hormones stronger: numbers games (more numbers!)

Answer 135

blood flow increases to skeletal muscle and the brain but NOT to gastrointestinal tract and reproductive organs; when it comes to the skin it is dependent (do not want to bleed out vs heat and flushing)

Answer 136

cervical enlargement, conus medullaris, cauda equina, filum terminale, lumbar-sacral enlargement

Answer 137

many of these nerves are part of the brachial plexus

Answer 138

end of the spinal cord: L2-L3 area

Answer 139

"horse tail" as they are long-reaching nerves that move inferiorly to other parts of the body

Answer 140

thin, fibrous band that connects the bottom of the spinal cord to the coccyx pia matter that connects to the base of the sacrum; is a good source of cerebrospinal fluid which should be sterile HOWEVER, if there are white blood cells in the cerebrospinal fluid then that could signify meningitis

Answer 141

widened area of the spinal cord that gives attachment to the nerves which supply the lower limbs; triangular bone at the bottom of the spine

Answer 142

outside in brain but inside in spinal cord; consist of neuron cell bodies, dendrites and unmyelinated axons

Answer 143

inside in brain but outside in spinal cord; consist of bundles of myelinated axons

Answer 144

a spinal nerve that innervates the diaphragm for respiration; inhalation involves diaphragm and intercostal muscles

Answer 145

proprioceptors that are located in the tendon adjacent to the myotendinous junction; detects stress

Answer 146

body's ability to ascertain body movements, direction and position awareness; when found in muscles, tendons, and ligaments they are known as mechanosensory neurons is a sensory function, not motor function; however, motor nerves to muscles also contain some proprioceptive afferent fibers from those muscles

Answer 147

pain that is distributed to one or more nerves

Answer 148

olfactory I, optic II, oculomotor III, trochlear IV, trigeminal V, abducens VI, facial VII, vestibulocochlear VIII, glossopharyngeal IX, vagus X, spinal accessory XI, hypoglossal XII

Answer 149

special sense of smell olfactory bulbs are larger in vertebrates that have a better sense of smell; proprioception (sensory function); smell and taste are linked and both are chemoreceptors; smell is linked to memory consequences of lesions: inability to smell

Answer 150

special sense of vision optic chiasm (part of the brain where optic nerves cross); vision centers are located in the occipital bone consequences of lesions: blindness on the affected side

Answer 151

superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, and inferior oblique muscles involved; proprioceptive; parasympathetic to the sphincter of the pupil (constriction) and ciliary muscle of the lens (accommodation) consequences of lesions: double vision, blurred vision, eyelids drooping (ptosis)

Answer 152

superior oblique muscle involved; proprioceptive; some of the smallest motor units (due to fine movements) are found within the muscles that control the eye consequences of lesions: double vision; lens mineralize resulting in cataracts

Answer 153

mastication (chewing) mainly from mandibular branch (V3) consisting of masseter, temporalis, medial and lateral pterygoids consequences of lesions: trigeminal neuralgia; intense pain along the course of a branch of the nerve; loss of tactile sensation in the face; weakness in biting or clenching jaw

Answer 154

ophthalmic branch (V1): sensory input like touch, pain, and temperature from these regions maxillary branch (V2): sensory input from the midface and upper oral structures mandibular branch (V3): sensory input from the lower face and motor control of chewing muscles

Answer 155

lateral rectus muscle involved; proprioceptive consequences of lesions: double vision

Answer 156

controls facial expressions; proprioceptive consequences of lesions: facial palsy known as a loss of taste sensation on the anterior two-thirds of tongue resulting in decreases salivation

Answer 157

special senses of hearing and balance semicircular canals of the ear with fluid that play a role in balance and detection of acceleration and deceleration; cochlea plays a role in hearing consequences of lesions: loss of hearing, loss of balance and equilibrium

Answer 158

sense of taste form posterior one-third of tongue parasympathetic increases salivary gland secretion; motor to pharyngeal muscle; proprioceptive to pharyngeal muscle; *amylase that breaks down starch* consequences of lesions: difficulty swallowing

Answer 159

goes all over the body; only nerve to extend beyond the head and neck to visceral organs in the thorax and abdomen parasympathetic to sinoatrial (SA) node of the heart leading to heart rate lowering (SA node will fire twice per second without "vagal tone") consequences of lesions: difficulty swallowing and/or hoarseness

Answer 160

most posterior; motor to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius consequences of lesions: difficulty elevating the scapula or rotating the neck

Answer 161

under the tongue; intrinsic tongue muscles that are entirely within the tongue + extrinsic tongue muscles that attach the tongue to other structures

Answer 162

spinal accessory nerve XI

Answer 163

vision: optic nerve II double vision: oculomotor nerve III, trochlear nerve IV, abducens nerve VI

Answer 164

dependent on how many muscle fibers are innervated to a neuron; size affects how fine the movements are for a group of muscle fibers smaller motor units have less muscle fibers innervated; down to one larger motor units have more muscle fibers innervated; up to thousands

Answer 165

small motor units create finer motion and are used in eye muscles for small movements while helping in focusing sight

Answer 166

female brain is better at multitasking, has an increase in corpus callosum, and an increase in synapse connections

Answer 167

anterior; controls the voluntary muscle movements

Answer 168

posterior; receives and processes sensory information from the body

Answer 169

central sulcus

Answer 170

central nervous system: astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells peripheral nervous system: satellite and schwann cells

Answer 171

detect changes in pressure; communicate with multiple brain centers to regulate blood pressure (medulla oblongata) blood pressure is closely monitored by baroreceptors, which are located in key areas of the aortic arch and carotid sinuses

Answer 172

function as smooth muscle structures that regulate blood flow into capillary beds when they constrict, blood flow into the capillaries decreases, shunting blood to other areas or larger vessels; when they relax, blood flows freely into capillary beds, enhancing tissue perfusion

Answer 173

constriction of pre-capillary sphincters is primarily mediated by alpha-adrenergic receptors

Answer 174

refers to the baseline level of sympathetic nervous system activity, which heavily influences vascular tones balance between vasoconstriction and vasodilation receptors determines blood vessel diameter

Answer 175

penetrates the skin

Answer 176

breaks into pieces

Answer 177

perpendicular to medullary cavity

Answer 178

parallel to medullary cavity

Answer 179

diagonal to medullary cavity

Answer 180

diagonal and a "clean cut"

Answer 181

leg is planted, but body has twisted severely

Answer 182

bone bends before breaking *typically happens in the very young

Answer 183

stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale

Answer 184

stratum corneum and stratum lucidum

Answer 185

stratum spinosum and stratum basale

Answer 186

stratum granulosum

Answer 187

cartilage, proliferation, hypertrophy, calcification, ossification

Answer 188

contains chondroblast produced on the epiphyseal side of the plate as the chondrocytes divide and form stacks of cells

Answer 189

hyperplasia: massive mitotic activity that increases cell number

Answer 190

a lot of mitotic division = cell number goes up

Answer 191

cells grow in size; one cells gets bigger

Answer 192

cells are filled with hydroxyapatite, then undergo apoptosis that leave the hydroxyapatite ONLY (cell is gone)

Answer 193

new diaphysis

Answer 194

parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, calcitonin, estrogen

Answer 195

from parathyroid gland; elevates blood calcium stimulus: low blood calcium osteoclast activity increases

Answer 196

activated vitamin D3; elevates blood calcium osteoclast activity increases ultraviolets rays from sun on skin for cholecalciferol - to liver for calciferone - to kidneys for calcitriol

Answer 197

from thyroid c-cells; lowers blood calcium osteoblast activity increases, so hydroxyapatite production increases osteoclast activity decreases

Answer 198

prevents osteoblast apoptosis, keeping the osteoblast in circulation which is good for bone density increased estrogen = increased osteoblast activity = building bone decreased estrogen = menopause = osteoporosis

Answer 199

cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

Answer 200

ΔP = Q (flow) x R (resistance)

Answer 201

D + ((S - D)/3) D = diastolic S = systolic pressure units = mmHg

Answer 202

PG I2, PG D2, PG E2, PG F2 alpha, PG H2

Answer 203

wound stage two: vasodilation increases blood and increases ability to heal; inhibits platelet aggregation

Answer 204

PAIN; pyretic (fire/heat) that promotes an increase in fever; sleep wake cycle

Answer 205

PAIN; redness; swelling = increases inflammation

Answer 206

corpus luteum (yellow body) regression estrogen and oxytocin stimulate the release of oxytocin, which aids in he stimulation of uterine contraction

Answer 207

initial wound stage: thromboxane - 1) vasoconstrictor and 2) promotes platelet aggregation to form clots we do not want to endure blood loss

anatomy and physiology exam four Flashcards

(236 cards)