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Question 1

Parts of Speech

Answer 1

Latin does not have an article (the, a, an), but otherwise has the same parts of speech as English.

A preposition connects a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence and shows a relationship between the two - from, into, with, by

A conjunction connects words or groups of words - and, but, if, when
Each of the different parts of speech just listed has a function in the sentence.

Question 2

What Words Do (Function)

Answer 2

The subject of a sentence is the person or thing the sentence is about. To identify the subject, use the verb of the sentence and ask “who/what s?” – the answer will be the subject. It is usually a noun or pronoun.

The verb of a sentence expresses an action or occurrence. The same term, “verb,” names both the part of speech and its function.

The direct object of a sentence is the person or thing that receives the action of the verb directly. Like the subject, it is usually a noun or pronoun.

Question 3

Sentence Patterns - Intransitive Transitive

Answer 3

The verb sets the pattern for a sentence. The meaning of the verb determines what items are necessary to complete the action it expresses, and this allows you to know what other core items to expect.

1) Intransitive * subject * verb - The intransitive pattern requires only a subject and a verb to express a complete

2) Transitive * subject * verb * direct object (in the accusative case) - The transitive pattern requires a direct object to complete the action of the verb. Verbs that take a direct object are called transitive verbs.

Question 4

The Verb -
Present Active Indicative, Present Active Infinitive

Answer 4

Verbs in Latin fall into four regular groups, called conjugations. Each conjugation has a common set of endings, which are added to the stem of the verb. The verb stem carries the meaning of the verb and a characteristic vowel.
The endings are called personal endings because they carry information about who the subject of the verb is. These endings are traditionally identified by person (first, second, or third) and number (singular or plural)
Verb forms with personal endings are called finite forms (from the Latin for “limit,” fīnis) because they are limited by identifying the subject. Verbs are also identified by:

Tense - when an action happens (e.g., present, future)
Voice - whether the subject is doing the action (active) or receiving the action (passive)
Mood - whether the verb is a simple statement or question (indicative), or a command (imperative), etc.

Question 5

Present active indicative

Answer 5

Notice that the personal endings are the same for both conjugations ( 1 and 2) and are added directly to the stem of the verb in each form. In the “I” form (first person singular) of the first conjugation, the stem vowel -a- contracts with the personal ending to produce the form amō rather than amaō.
The present tense can be translated “I love,” “I am loving,” or “I do love.”
Latin expresses simple statements and simple questions by using the indicative mood
Because the ending on the verb tells you who the subject is, Latin does not have to use a separate word for the subject as we do in English: vident = they see

Question 6

Present active infinitive

Answer 6

The infinitive is a verbal noun, a form of the verb that is not limited (infinitus) by a personal ending. To find the present stem of a verb, drop the -re from the present active infinitive. The vowel on the verb stem will show what conjugation the verb belongs. The infinitive ends in -re. It means to do something.

Question 7

Principal Parts

Answer 7

The first person singular indicative form (I love) and the present infinitive form (to love) are called principal parts because they contain the verb stems on which all other forms are built.

Question 8

Indicative Uses: Statements and Questions

Answer 8

Indicative verb forms are used to make simple statements and to ask simple questions.
Notice that Latin does not require any change of word order to signal a question. Often the enclitic -ne (§F) is added on the end of the first word of a question.

Question 9

Infinitive Use: Complementary

Answer 9

Infinitives have properties of both verbs and nouns, and have several different uses. One of the most common is to complete the meaning of another verb. This use of the infinitive is called the complementary infinitive:

Question 10

Latin cases

Answer 10

Instead of using word order to identify subjects and other elements in a sentence, Latin uses forms, called cases, which provide information about what each noun, pronoun, or adjective is doing in a sentence.
The nominative case is used for the subject of a finite verb. The accusative case is the direct object.

Question 11

Nouns

Answer 11

Nouns are made up of the stem of the noun, which carries the meaning of the noun. In order to find the stem of the noun, drop the genitive singular ending. The ending shows the case of the noun, and whether it is singular or plural. Nouns are gendered. The easiest way to identify declension is to drop the genitive singular ending.

Latin nouns are also identified by gender (masculine, feminine or neuter).

Most first declension nouns are feminine.
The common exceptions are often remembered as the “PAIN” words, which are all masculine.

Most second declension nouns with a nominative in -us or -er are masculine.
Second declension nouns with a nominative in -um are neuter.

Question 12

The conjunction

Answer 12

Latin uses “coordinating” conjunctions (words like and, but, or) just as English does, to connect words, phrases and sentences. The most important thing to notice is that the words being connected always have the same function (e.g., 2 subjects, 2 verbs; never a subject and a verb, or a subject and direct object.)

As in English, conjunctions in Latin are commonly placed between the words or phrases they connect. An exception to this is the enclitic (a word pronounced with so little emphasis that it is shortened and forms part of the preceding word, for example n’t in can’t.) -que, which is added to the second item of those being connected.
A coordinating conjunction should lead you to expect another word or phrase with the same function as that in the first item. If two subjects are joined by a conjunction, the verb will usually be plural.

Question 13

The Imperative

Answer 13

To indicate a direct command, Latin uses a mood called the imperative, which usually appears in the second person (singular or plural) and present tense.

The singular form is usually the same as the present stem, found by dropping -re from the present active infinitive.
The plural form adds -te to the present stem.
These are positive commands.

Question 14

The vocative case

Answer 14

The vocative case in Latin is used to address a person (or thing) directly.

Its form is identical to the nominative in both the singular and the plural of all declensions - except for the singular of 2nd declension nouns ending in -us or -ius .

2nd declension nouns in -us use the vocative singular ending -e ; those ending in -ius use the ending -ī :

Sometimes the vocative case is preceded by an ō and in modern texts is often set off by a comma. The vocative can appear in statements or questions but is most common in commands.

Question 15

The genitive case (chap 3)

Answer 15

The genitive case is usually best translated “of ______” and can indicate several common relationships between a noun and another word.

Two of the most common uses of the genitive are to show:
Possession
Of the whole (partitive) - the genitive expresses the whole of which a part is mentioned. E.g - a crowd of men, no one of the women (none of the women)

Question 16

The dative case

Answer 16

The dative singular forms have different endings in the first and second declensions,
but the dative plural forms are the same in both declensions:

The dative case is usually best translated “to ______” or “ for ______” and, like the genitive, has a number of different uses. Two of the most common uses are to show:

Indirect object - e.g he gives the gift to the girl

Reference (interest) - the person to whom the statement refers or is of interest e.g he is working for the master

Question 17

The adverb (chap 4)

Answer 17

Adverbs give information on such things as time, manner, degree or place, they also answer questions such as when? where? how? how much? to what extent? They usually modify verbs, although they may sometimes modify adjectives or even other adverbs, or even a whole sentence.
Examples of adverbs include, almost, there very quickly. Unlike nouns, adverbs are not declined. They usually end in -ter or -ē.

Question 18

The preposition (chap 4)

Answer 18

Like adverbs, prepositions are not declined. They never appear alone in a sentence, and appear with a noun or pronoun which is then called the object of the preposition. It is usually in the accusative or ablative case. Like adverbs, they give information about where, why and with whom the action of the verb occurs.
Prepositions come with a case which should be memorised, but some prepositions can be used in any case.

Question 19

The ablative case (chap 4)

Answer 19

The ablative case always ends in one vowel, usually long. In the first and second declension, in the singular and the nominative, the ending are the same.

The ablative has many many meanings, but the most common ones can be summed up - by, with, from, in or at. One of the most important uses of the ablative without a preposition is to show
Means - the thing by which something is used to be done - I see with my eyes.

Question 20

Expressions of place

Answer 20

Latin uses prepositional phrases to indicate where or in which direction an action happens.
Preposition with accusative
(motion towards) - She carries the water to the men
Preposition with ablative
(place where) - the farmer works in the field,
(place from which (walking away, motion from)) the girl walks away from the crowd
Notice that either place from where or place to which, you should expect a verb of motion in the sentence.

Question 21

Word order

Answer 21

Word order in Latin is much more variable, and generally, the first and last words are the most important - so an author may put in those places words they tend to emphasise. If no special emphasis is wanted, usually the subject will appear first and the verb last.

Question 22

Adverbial modification

Answer 22

Adverbial modifications modify a verb, adjective or adverb, but not a noun. The new items mentioned (adverbs, prepositional phrases, ablative of means) and the dative of reference from chapter 3 all work as adverbial modifiers. These modifiers are not part of the core sentence. While subject, the direct object and the verb are needed for the sentence, the adverbial modifiers are not. Examples of adverbial modifiers are:
The boy runs quickly
The boy runs into the house
The boy runs on his feet

Question 23

The adjective - first and second declension

Answer 23

An adjective is a word naming an attribute of a noun, such as sweet, red, or technical.
Adjectives look like nouns and also have the same endings. Unlike nouns, which only have 1 gender, adjectives have forms in the feminine, masculine and neuter. Adjectives fall into two groups, one using the endings of the first and second declension, and one using the third. There are no adjectives in the fourth or fifth declension.

Some adjectives follow the pattern of puer:
liber libera liberum liberī liberae liberī
Notice that the stem of these adjectives can be found by dropping the nominative feminine or neuter singular ending
līber (a) līber (um) nostr (a) nostr (um)

Question 24

Agreement

Answer 24

Adjectives agree with nouns in case, number and gender. This does not mean they are from the same declension, or that their endings will be the same. Because Latin adjectives agree with the noun in case, number and gender, they do not need to be next to each other in word order. You can expect a variable word order, but lightly, an adjective might precede the word it seeks to modify.

Question 25

Substantive (noun) use

Answer 25

The substantive use is the use of an adjective without a noun.

“The land of the free and the home of the brave.”

In this use, the adjective functions as a noun, and is understood from context. In Latin, the gender and number of the adjective helps fill in information of the missing noun. If it is in the masculine, it is talking of men or of a man, in feminine of woman/women and in the neuter things.

Question 26

More use of the genitive

Answer 26

We have learnt that the genitive indicates possession, or a whole part of something. It can also be translated “of_____” - but here are 3 other ways it can be used:
Explanatory - the genitive explains more about the noun (e.g god of the sea)
Objective - the genitive would be the object if the other noun were a verb (e.g he commands the sea)
Subjective - the genitive would be the subject if the other noun were a verb (e.g the crowd advises)
Without context, it can be hard to distinguish between subjective and objective uses, for example, “fear of the enemy “ could mean either someone fears the enemy (objective) or the enemy fears someone or thing (subjective).

Question 27

Adjective modification

Answer 27

Adjectival modifiers modify nouns. The adjectives and uses of the genitive case you have learnt so far function as adjectival modifiers. They are not required elements in a sentence however. They are used to provide more information about a noun in the sentence. Example - He bought a dark blue bike. Here, the adjective ‘dark’ is modifying the other adjective, ‘blue’. Adjectives modify nouns, which can be inferred by whether or not the adjective agrees with the noun.

Adjectival modifiers seek to modify the noun. The use of the genitive we have seen so far are adjectival modifiers. Adjectives are used to provide more information about the noun. An adjective is an example of an adjectival modifier.

Question 28

Sentence pattern - linking

Answer 28

A third common pattern is linking. In this sentence pattern, the verb acts as an equal sign for the adjective or noun, linking the subject to the adjective or noun that describes the subject. The adjective or noun which completes the picture of the subject is called the subject complement. Since the subject of a finite verb is always nominative, so is the subject complement. The three core things of a linking sentence pattern are:
Subject
Linking verb
Subject complement

Sum is one of the most common linking verbs. When this verb occurs as the first word in a sentence, it is a sign that the sentence pattern is intransitive.
When an adjective modifies multiple nouns of different genders, it is usually plural. If the noun refers to people, it is generally masculine.

Question 29

More use of the ablative

Answer 29

The ablative case can be used without a preposition to show the means or instrument by which something is done, and with a preposition to indicate place where or place from which.
With the preposition cum the ablative can indicate two different things, depending on whether the noun is animate (person) or inanimate (non person).
When a noun is modified by an adjective in the ablative manner, the adjective comes first and the preposition may be omitted. If it is included, it often appears in between two words:
Magnā cum cūrā labōrat . She works with great care .
These uses of the ablative, like the earlier ones, work as adverbial modifiers.

Question 30

Imperfect Active Indicative: First and Second Conjugations

Answer 30

The imperfect is one of 3 past tense forms in Latin and is easily recognisable by the tense sign -bā- in between the verb stem and personal ending.
The personal endings are the same as those used in the present tense (§5) except for the first person singular where -m replaces -ō.
The imperfect tense in Latin usually indicates an action going on in the past but not completed. In English it can look like:

he was advising or he kept advising (continuous action)

he used to advise or he advised every year (repeated or habitual action)

he tried to advise (attempted action)

he began to advise (the beginning of an action)

Question 31

Future Active Indicative : First and Second Conjugations

Answer 31

The future of first and second conjugation verbs can be recognized by the tense sign -bi- between the verb stem and the personal endings.
Again, the personal endings are the same as in the present tense. Notice two things:

In the first person singular, the ending -bō is contracted from -biō .
In the third person plural, -bu- replaces -bi-

Question 32

Sum : Imperfect and Future Indicative

Answer 32

Like the present tense of sum, the imperfect and the future must be memorised.

Notice that the endings for each tense are regular. The imperfect has era- (erā-) throughout.
The future has eri- throughout except in the first singular and third plural forms.
It follows the pattern MST and the plural mus, tis , nt

Notice the imperfect can be translated multiple different ways:

(Continuous action) He was or he kept being
(Repeated or Habitual action) He used to be or he (always) was
(Attempted action) He tried to be
(Beginning of an action) He began to be

Question 33

What is gapping

Answer 33

Gapping is the deletion of identical verbs (!!!!!) except for one in conjoined sentences which differ in at least two of their constituents.
The omission of a verb in the second of two coordinated clauses.
A construction in which part of a sentence is omitted rather than repeated.

Latin can leave a gap in the sentence, where a word would be expected. This is especially common in coordinating conjunctions (‘et’ (and), ‘sed’ (but)), but can occur without a conjunction present as well.
In Latin, identical subjects, verbs or direct objects can be gapped in either the first or second coordinate clause. In this example, laudat (the verb) is gapped in the first clause, and virum (direct object) is gapped in the second:

Puer virum sed nōn puella laudat. The boy praises the man, but the girl does not.
or
The boy praises the man, but the girl does not praise the man.

A sailor fears winds, not water. A sailor fears winds, (he does) not (fear) water.

Question 34

Infinitive Use: As a Noun

Answer 34

The complementary infinitive use is when it is used (as a verb) to complete the verb. The infinitive as a noun has a different use. When used as a noun, the infinitive is considered neuter and singular, but retains its abilities to govern an object and is modified by an adverb, not an adjective. This use of the infinitive is particularly common as the subject or subject complement of sum and with certain impersonal verbs.
In this use of the infinitive, amare either means, to love, or loving. Videre means to see, or seeing.
Note that in both examples, the Latin infinitive can be translated with either an infinitive or a gerund(verb form of a noun - loving, seeing).

Question 35

Dative of possession

Answer 35

Another common form of the dative with the word sum is to show possession:

Virō est liber. The man has a book. (the book belongs to the man)
Puerīs pecūnia erat. The boys used to have money.

The dative form of possession has more emphasise in the sentence on the possession of the object, which differs from the genitive, where the possession is not emphasised in the subject:

Does the man have a book? Virō est liber. The man has a book. (dative)
Whose book is it? Virī est liber. The book is the man’s. (genitive)
Subject comes first in the dative then?

Question 36

Third declension nouns

Answer 36

Third declension nouns fall into two separate categories, those whose stem ends in a consonant, and those that end in an -i-.
Consonant ending nouns (C, g, i ( j ) , s, t, v, x) can then be divided into two groups - those that have no significant ending in the nominative singular, and those that add an -s- to form the nominative singular.
In either consonant group , you can always identify the stem by removing the case ending from the genitive singular form . Masculine and feminine nouns in the third declension use the same set of endings . The Vocative is identical to the Nominative in the singular and plural .
The consonant of the stem may combine with the -s ending of the nominative singular to produce a different spelling - (rēg + s > rēx) (noct + s > nox)

Question 37

Gender patterns

Answer 37

Nouns in the third declension may be any gender and as a result the gender must be memorised. However, these are some tips to recognise:

-tor , -tōris - masculine

-tās , -tātis -tūs , -tūtis -tiō , -tiōnis -tūdō , -tūdinis - feminine

-al , ālis -us , -oris -men -minis -e -is - neuter

Question 38

The pronoun: personal

Answer 38

Pronouns in Latin are recognised rather by case and number, and differentiated by person over gender. Because a Latin finite verb identified the subject by means of its ending , the nominative forms of the personal pronouns were generally used only for emphasis , contrast or clarity .

Question 39

Sentence pattern - special intransitive

Answer 39

4) Special Intransitive
In a fourth, less common, sentence pattern, certain intransitive verbs take their object in the dative or ablative instead of the accusative

Subject
Verb
object - in the dative or ablative

The special intransitive pattern only occurs with a small group of special verbs, so it is best to memorise the case of the object when you learn the verb.

careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.)
noceō, nocēre, nocuī (+ dat.)
pāreō, pārēre, pāruī (+ dat.)
placeō, placēre, placuī, placitūrus (+ dat.)

Notice that when sentences with one of these special verbs are translated into English , the object often sounds just like a direct object.

The man misses Italy . The weapons harm the men . The weapons are harmful to the men .