A&P Part 1 Flashcards
The study of body structure
Anatomy
Study of how the body functions
Physiology
The study of larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification
Also referred to as macroscopic anatomy
Gross anatomy
The study of structures that can be observed only with the use of microscope or other magnification devices
Includes cytology, the study of cells and histology the study of tissues.
Microscopic anatomy
Defined as a mechanism that maintains a stable internal environment despite the changes present in the external environment
Homeostasis
the sum of all chemical and physical reactions to sustain life
Metabolism
Is the destruction process in which complex substances are broken down into simple substances
Catabolism
The constructive process of converting simple substances into more complex substances
Anabolism
The most basic level. Are chemicals that make up the body
Chemical level
The smallest living unit of structure and function. Each is made up of chemicals and carries out specific chemical reactions
Cellular level
A group of cells that work together to accomplish one or more specific functions
Tissue level
A group of tissues arranged to accomplish specific functions.
An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissues types
Organ level
Different directions a body is cut to reveal different views
Body planes
Divides the body vertically into front and back portions
Frontal
Divides the body vertically into equal right and left portions
Medial
Divides the body vertically into right and left portions
Sagittal
Divides the body horizontally into upper and lower portions
Transverse
Fundamental units of life.
Provides structure and stability to providing energy and a means of reproduction for an organism
Cells
Encloses the contents of a cell, provides a protective barrier that selectively allows certain substances to move in and out when needed
Cell membrane
Proteins thats are embedded in the membrane.
Permanently attached to the plasma membrane
Functions include channeling or transporting molecules across the membrane
Integral proteins
Proteins that are temporarily attached to the plasma membrane
Functions are supported, communication, enzymes and molecule transferase
Peripheral proteins
these proteins pass the message to integral proteins, and the message is carried inside the cell
Communication
To maintain both the intracellular cytoskeleton and components of the extracellular matrix
Supported
To break it down or to combine it with another molecule
Enzymes
protein transfer electrons from integral proteins they are attached to and can pass the electrons to other proteins and molecules
Molecule transferase
the control centre of the cell as it governs the function of the cell
It stores all of the genetic instructions for manufacturing proteins
Nucleus
Contains mostly h2o with dissolved nutrients and fills up the rest of the cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Main component of the cytoplasm are
Cytoplasm, organelles and various cytoplasmic inclusions
organelle that contains enzymes that break down and digest unneeded cellular components, such as damaged organelle
Autophagy (self-eating) is the process of a cell digesting its own structures
Lysosome
Powerhouse of the cell
Prominent roles are to produce the energy currency of the cell, ATP, through respiration and to regulate cellular metabolism
Mitochondria
Membrane is dotted with embedded granules — organelles called ribosomes, giving the ER a bumpy appearance
Synthesis and modification of proteins destined for the cell membrane or for export from the cell.
Rough ER (endoplasmic reticulum)
Main function is in the synthesis of lipids.
Synthesizes phospholipids, the main component of biological membranes, as well as steroid hormones
Smooth ER (endoplasmic reticulum)
Responsible for sorting, modifying, and shipping off the products that come from the rough ER, much like a post-office
Is membranous
Golgi Apparatus
Refers to the sheets of cells that cover exterior surfaces of the body, line internal cavities and passageways, and form certain glands
Epithelial tissue (also known as epithelium)
Binds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in the protection, support, and integration of all parts of the body.
Major function is to connect tissue and organs.
Connective tissue
Is excitable, responding to stimulation and contracting to provide movement, and occurs as three major types: skeletal (voluntary) muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle in the heart
Muscle tissue
Also excitable, allowing the propagation of electrochemical signals in the form of nerve impulses that communicate between different regions of the body
Capable of sending and receiving electrochemical signals that provide the body with information
Nervous tissue
Two main classes of cells that make up nervous tissue
Neurons and neuroglia
Propagates information via electrochemical impulses called action potentials, which are biochemically linked to the release of chemical signals
Neurons
Plays an essential role in supporting neurons and modulating their information propagation
Neuroglia
Is the set of organs forming the outermost layer of an animal’s body.
Compromises the skin and its appendages, which act as a physical barrier between the external environment and the internal environment that it serves to protect and maintain the body of the animal
Integumentary system
Largest organ of the body
Skin
3 basic layers of the skin
Epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous
Composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium.
Made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on the location of the body.
Does not have blood vessels within it
Epidermis
Is found in only in the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet
Thick skin
Four types of cells in the epidermis
Keratinocytes, melanocytes, merkel cells, langerhans cells
the predominant cell
Produces keratin, a fibrous protein that aide to skin protection, is responsible for the formation of the epidermal water barrier by making and secreting lipids
Keratinocyte
Produces melanin, a pigment found in the skin, eyes, hair, nasal cavity and inner ear
Melanocyte
are oval-shaped mechanoreceptors essential for light touch sensation and found in the skin of vertebrates
Are abundant in highly sensitive skin like that of the fingertips in humans
Merkel cells
Are type of immune cell found primarily in the epidermis that have important roles in the stimulation and suppression of the adaptive immune response
Langerhans cells
might be considered the “core” of the integumentary system.
Contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands
Dermis
Dermis layer contains
Blood vessels, nerve endings, sweat glands, sebaceous glands
Regulates temperature and fluid loss and is responsible for skin colour changes
Blood vessels
Provides sensation of heat, cold, pressure, pain and touch
Nerve endings
Produces sweat for temperature regulation and elimination of waste
Sweat glands
Produces an oily substance that keeps the skin soft
Sebaceous glands
Also called the subcutaneous layer
A layer directly below the dermis and serves to connect the skin to the underlying fascia of the bones and muscles
Hypodermis
Consists of well-vascularized, loose, areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue, which functions as a mode of fat storage and provides insulation and cushioning for the integument
Hypodermis
Main functions of the skin
- Protection
- Regulates body temp
- Aids in awareness of environment
- Protects body against fluid loss
- Eliminates waste products (perspiration)
- Production if vitamin D
- Communication
skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of the skin that are rich in sebaceous glands
Most common along with the onset of puberty due to associated hormonal changes
Acne
an allergic reaction that manifests as dry, itchy patches of skin that resemble rashes
May be accompanied by swelling of the skin, flaking, and in severe cases, bleeding
Eczema
results when the skin is damaged by intense heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals
Damage results in the death of skin cells, which can lead to a massive loss of fluid
Burns
when the process of collagen formation does not stop when the wound is healed
Results in the formation of a raised or hypertrophic scar
Keloid
A structure of living tissue that grows, repairs and renews itself
Skeleton
Functions of the skeleton
Supports the body
Facilitates movement
Protects internal organs
Stores and releases minerals and fat
Produces blood cells
Organs of the skeletal system
Bones
Cartilage
Joints
Ligaments
Tendons
Is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton, the support structure of the body
Bones
____ of bones that compose the adult skeleton are divided into five categories based on their shapes
206
Types of bone tissue
Long bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Irregular bones
Sesamoid bones
Cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide.
Found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula) as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges)
Functions as levers; they move when muscles contract
Long bones
Cube like in shape, being approximately equal in length, width, and thickness
Only bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrist and tarsals of the ankle
Provides stability and support as well as some limited motion
Short bones
although it is typically thin, it is also typically curved
Serves as points of attachment for muscles and often protect internal organs
Flat bones
Does not have any easily characterized shape and therefore does not fit any other classification
Tend to have more complex shape, like the vertebrae that support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces
Irregular bones
is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is shaped like a sesame seed
Protects tendons by helping them overcome compressive forces
Typically found in tendons associated with the feet, hands and knees
Patella are the only bones found in common with every person
Sesamoid bones
Supports the weight of the head, neck, and the trunk
Protects the spinal cord
Maintains an upright body position
Consists of 26 bones
Vertebrae
Parts of the vertebrae
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx
___ vertebrae located in the neck
7
___ vertebrae located in the chest
12
___ located in the inferior portion of the back
5
Curved vertebrae located at the bottom
Sacrum
The tail bone consisting of 3-5 small vertebrae
Coccyx
Is composed of specialized cells called chondrocytes that produce a large amount of collagenous extracellular matrix, abundant ground substance that is rich in proteoglycan and elastin fibers
Does not contain blood vessels or nerves
Cartilage
A glycoprotein abundant in cartilage and synovial fluid, plays a major role in biolubrication and wear protection of cartilage
Lubricin
Also called an articulation
Any place where adjacent bones or bone and cartilage come together to form a connection
Joint
the fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones
Ligament
connect muscle to bone
tendons
axis of the body and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest and back
serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart and lungs
also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck and back and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs
axial skeleton
axial skeleton of an adult consists of ____ bones including the skull, ther vertebral column and the thoracic cage.
80
includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton.
appendicular skeleton
there are ____ bones in the appendicular skeleton of an adult
126
factors that affect bone growth and maintenance
heredity
nutrition
hormones
exercise or stress
are soft tissues
main function is to move the skeleton
muscular system
three types of muscle tissues
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle
are voluntary muscles attached to bone
skeletal or striated
involuntary muscle that lines the walls of internal organs such as intestines or veins and arteries
smooth or visceral
heart muscle
cardiac
its ability to contract and cause movement
acts not only to produce movement but to also stop movement, such as resisting gravity to maintain posture
skeletal muscles
is present in the walls of hollow organs like the urinary bladder, uterus, stomach, such as the arteries and veins in the circulatory system, and the tract of the respiratory, urinary, and reproductive system
smooth muscle
only found in the heart
is striated and organized into sarcomere, possessing the same banding organization as skeletal muscle
cardiac muscle
are under your conscious control
usually striated muscles
voluntary muscles
are not under your conscious control
usually smooth and cardiac muscle
involuntary muscles
muscles functions
mobility, stability, posture, circulation, respiration, digestion, urination, childbirth, vision, organ protection, and temperature regulation
moving away from the center
abduction
moving towards the center
adduction
bending of a joint
flexing
straightening of a limb
extension
hyperextension
straightening of a limb beyond its capabilities
face down or hands palm down
pronation
face up or hands palm up
supination
turning a limb towards the body
internal rotation
turning a limb away from the body
external rotation
shrinkage of a muscle due to lack of use
atrophy
can be divided into two major regions: the central and peripheral nervous systems
Nervous system
is the brain and spinal cord
central nervous system (CNS)
is everything else aside from the spinal and brain
plays a key role in both sending information from different areas of your body back to your brain, as well as carrying out commands from your brain to various parts of your body
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
functions of the nervous system
- allows communication throughout the body and regulates body function
- detects sensation
- controls movement and physiological functions
- controls intellectual processes
are the basic cells of nervous tissue.
are responsible for the electrical signals that communicate information about sensations, and that produce movements in response to those stimuli, along with inducing thought processes within the brain
neurons
is the fiber that connects a neuron with its target
axon
are responsible for receiving most of the input from other neurons
dendrites
is insulation for axons in the nervous system
myelin
are the principle glia of the PNS
schwan cells
periodic gap in the insulating sheath on the axon of certain neurons that serves to facilitate the rapid conduction of nerve impulses
node of ravier
they are supporting cells, and many functions are directed at helping neurons complete their function for communication
glial cells
3 major sections of the brain
cerebrum
cerebellum
brain stem
responsible for coordinating all mental activities of thinking, voluntary movement
usually left is functionally dominant, controlling language and speech. the other side interprets visual and spatial information
cerebrum
coordinates muscle activities and balance
can also play a role in cognitive functions like language and attention
cerebellum
controls involuntary movements of vital organs
the stalk like part of your brain that connects your brain to your spinal cord
brain stem
connects your brain to your lower back.
carries nerve signals from your brain to your body and vice versa
spinal cord
are nervous system processes your brain runs automatically and without you thinking about them
autonomic system
these are functions you manage by thinking about them
somatic system
an infection and inflammation of the fluid and membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord
meninges
