The behaviourist approach

Question 1

Behaviourism - What are we born as?

Answer 1

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state)

Question 2

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).

How is behaviour learned?

Answer 2

Behaviour is learned from experience

Question 3

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
What is everything we become shaped by?

Answer 3

Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment

Question 4

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, what should it focus on?

Answer 4

In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured

Question 5

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured, rather than what?

Answer 5

In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on:
1. Observable behaviour that can be objectively measured
,rather than
2. Things like cognitive processes that can only be inferred

Question 6

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured, rather than things like cognitive processes that can only be inferred.
What idea is rejected?

Answer 6

The idea of introspection is rejected

Question 7

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured, rather than things like cognitive processes that can only be inferred.
The idea of introspection is rejected.
What are the best way to achieve this?

Answer 7

Laboratory experiments are the best way to achieve this

Question 8

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured, rather than things like cognitive processes that can only be inferred.
The idea of introspection is rejected.
Laboratory experiments are the best way to achieve this.
Only what is measurable scientifically?

Answer 8

Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically

Question 9

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured, rather than things like cognitive processes that can only be inferred.
The idea of introspection is rejected.
Laboratory experiments are the best way to achieve this.
Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically and it is only what that should be studied?

Answer 9

1. Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically

2. It is only these behaviours that should be studied

Question 10

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured, rather than things like cognitive processes that can only be inferred.
The idea of introspection is rejected.
Laboratory experiments are the best way to achieve this.
Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically and it is only these behaviours that should be studied, why?

Answer 10

Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically and it is only these behaviours that should be studied, because thought processes are:

1. Subjective
2. Difficult to test

Question 11

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured, rather than things like cognitive processes that can only be inferred.
The idea of introspection is rejected.
Laboratory experiments are the best way to achieve this.
Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically and it is only these behaviours that should be studied, because thought processes are subjective and difficult to test.
Why is it valid to study the behaviour of animals?

Answer 11

It is valid to study the behaviour of animals, because they share the same principles of learning (classical and operant conditioning)

Question 12

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
In order for psychology to be scientific, it should focus on observable behaviour that can be objectively measured, rather than things like cognitive processes that can only be inferred.
The idea of introspection is rejected.
Laboratory experiments are the best way to achieve this.
Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically and it is only these behaviours that should be studied, because thought processes are subjective and difficult to test.
It is valid to study the behaviour of animals, because they share the same principles of learning (classical and operant conditioning).
We are born a blank state, so there is no what on behaviour?

Answer 12

We are born a blank state, so there is no genetic influence on behaviour

Question 13

Classical conditioning is one of the behaviourist principles of learning and is learning by association.
What is the key idea?

Answer 13

The key idea is that learning occurs when an association is made between:

1. A previously neutral stimulus
2. Reflex response

Question 14

Classical conditioning is one of the behaviourist principles of learning and is learning by association.
The key idea is that learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response.
This reflex response can be positive or negative.
If the association of the stimulus is with a positive feeling, then that positive feeling will arise whenever the person comes into contact with that specific stimulus.
The same is true for negative associations.
For example, 18 year old Kat has started university and is enjoying her fresher’s week.
A particular song is being played a lot during this time whilst she is out and she often dances to it.
She will make a positive association with that song and for years to come whenever she hears that song she will feel positive and happy.
Similarly, if Kat was miserable and homesick in that time, then she would feel bad whenever she heard that song.
Classical conditioning can be applied to many different situations.
What is one of the most memorable ways that someone can be conditioned?

Answer 14

One of the most memorable ways that someone can be conditioned is when they acquire a phobia

Question 15

Classical conditioning is one of the behaviourist principles of learning and is learning by association.
The key idea is that learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response.
This reflex response can be positive or negative.
If the association of the stimulus is with a positive feeling, then that positive feeling will arise whenever the person comes into contact with that specific stimulus.
The same is true for negative associations.
For example, 18 year old Kat has started university and is enjoying her fresher’s week.
A particular song is being played a lot during this time whilst she is out and she often dances to it.
She will make a positive association with that song and for years to come whenever she hears that song she will feel positive and happy.
Similarly, if Kat was miserable and homesick in that time, then she would feel bad whenever she heard that song.
Classical conditioning can be applied to many different situations.
One of the most memorable ways that someone can be conditioned is when they acquire a phobia.
What will they make an association between?

Answer 15

They will make an association between:

1. An object/situation
2. Fear

Question 16

Classical conditioning is one of the behaviourist principles of learning and is learning by association.
The key idea is that learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response.
This reflex response can be positive or negative.
If the association of the stimulus is with a positive feeling, then that positive feeling will arise whenever the person comes into contact with that specific stimulus.
The same is true for negative associations.
For example, 18 year old Kat has started university and is enjoying her fresher’s week.
A particular song is being played a lot during this time whilst she is out and she often dances to it.
She will make a positive association with that song and for years to come whenever she hears that song she will feel positive and happy.
Similarly, if Kat was miserable and homesick in that time, then she would feel bad whenever she heard that song.
Classical conditioning can be applied to many different situations.
One of the most memorable ways that someone can be conditioned is when they acquire a phobia.
They will make an association between an object/situation and fear.
This is illustrated by the rather unethical work of Watson and Rayner (1920), who classically conditioned a boy named ‘Little Albert’ to become phobic of rats.
How was this done?

Answer 16

This was done by the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus of a loud noise at the same time as the rat

Question 17

Classical conditioning is one of the behaviourist principles of learning and is learning by association.
The key idea is that learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response.
This reflex response can be positive or negative.
If the association of the stimulus is with a positive feeling, then that positive feeling will arise whenever the person comes into contact with that specific stimulus.
The same is true for negative associations.
For example, 18 year old Kat has started university and is enjoying her fresher’s week.
A particular song is being played a lot during this time whilst she is out and she often dances to it.
She will make a positive association with that song and for years to come whenever she hears that song she will feel positive and happy.
Similarly, if Kat was miserable and homesick in that time, then she would feel bad whenever she heard that song.
Classical conditioning can be applied to many different situations.
One of the most memorable ways that someone can be conditioned is when they acquire a phobia.
They will make an association between an object/situation and fear.
This is illustrated by the rather unethical work of Watson and Rayner (1920), who classically conditioned a boy named ‘Little Albert’ to become phobic of rats.
This was done by the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus of a loud noise at the same time as the rat.
After following this procedure several times, what happened?

Answer 17

After following this procedure several times, Little Albert started to cry whenever he was shown a rat, even though he had previously not been scared of it

Question 18

Who was classical conditioning documented for the first time by?

Answer 18

Classical conditioning was documented for the first time by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

Question 19

Classical conditioning was documented for the first time by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 - 1936).
Pavlov was a physiologist whose research work initially focused on the digestive system of dogs.
To do this, he had a dog harnessed to a bench with a tube coming out of its mouth and going into a jar.
When his assistant came into the laboratory with the food for the dog, Pavlov noticed that the dog salivated upon hearing the sound of the door.
Dogs salivate automatically when they see food, but Pavlov’s dog had clearly made an association with the imminent arrival of food when the door was opened.
Pavlov decided to look at this association as his research.
When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so what did Pavlov do whenever the dogs were given food?

Answer 19

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food

Question 20

Classical conditioning was documented for the first time by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 - 1936).
Pavlov was a physiologist whose research work initially focused on the digestive system of dogs.
To do this, he had a dog harnessed to a bench with a tube coming out of its mouth and going into a jar.
When his assistant came into the laboratory with the food for the dog, Pavlov noticed that the dog salivated upon hearing the sound of the door.
Dogs salivate automatically when they see food, but Pavlov’s dog had clearly made an association with the imminent arrival of food when the door was opened.
Pavlov decided to look at this association as his research.
When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
What then happened?

Answer 20

The sound of the bell then became associated with the food

Question 21

Classical conditioning was documented for the first time by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 - 1936).
Pavlov was a physiologist whose research work initially focused on the digestive system of dogs.
To do this, he had a dog harnessed to a bench with a tube coming out of its mouth and going into a jar.
When his assistant came into the laboratory with the food for the dog, Pavlov noticed that the dog salivated upon hearing the sound of the door.
Dogs salivate automatically when they see food, but Pavlov’s dog had clearly made an association with the imminent arrival of food when the door was opened.
Pavlov decided to look at this association as his research.
When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
What did this eventually mean?

Answer 21

This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present

Question 22

Classical conditioning was documented for the first time by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 - 1936).
Pavlov was a physiologist whose research work initially focused on the digestive system of dogs.
To do this, he had a dog harnessed to a bench with a tube coming out of its mouth and going into a jar.
When his assistant came into the laboratory with the food for the dog, Pavlov noticed that the dog salivated upon hearing the sound of the door.
Dogs salivate automatically when they see food, but Pavlov’s dog had clearly made an association with the imminent arrival of food when the door was opened.
Pavlov decided to look at this association as his research.
When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
What did Pavlov also find out about the process?

Answer 22

Pavlov also found out several other points about the process:

1. Stimulus generalisation
2. Stimulus discrimination
3. Time contiguity (temporal contiguity)

Question 23

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
1. Stimulus generalisation:
Pavlov found that if he varied the bell pitch and tone, what?

Answer 23

Pavlov found that if he varied the bell:
1. Pitch
2. Tone
,the dogs would still salivate

Question 24

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
1. Stimulus generalisation:
Pavlov found that if he varied the bell pitch and tone, the dogs would still salivate.
What did this mean?

Answer 24

This meant that:
1. If a stimulus has characteristics close to the conditioned stimulus
,then
2. The association would also be made to that new stimulus

Question 25

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
1. Stimulus generalisation:
Pavlov found that if he varied the bell pitch and tone, the dogs would still salivate.
This meant that if a stimulus has characteristics close to the conditioned stimulus, then the association would also be made to that new stimulus.
In the case of Watson and Rayner’s ‘Little Albert’ study, the little boy was not only frightened by the original white rat, but also what?

Answer 25

In the case of Watson and Rayner’s ‘Little Albert’ study, the little boy was not only frightened by:
1. The original white rat
,but also
2. Other small furry animals and white fluffy objects

Question 26

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
1. Stimulus generalisation:
Pavlov found that if he varied the bell pitch and tone, the dogs would still salivate.
This meant that if a stimulus has characteristics close to the conditioned stimulus, then the association would also be made to that new stimulus.
In the case of Watson and Rayner’s ‘Little Albert’ study, the little boy was not only frightened by the original white rat, but also other small furry animals and white fluffy objects.
What is this an example of?

Answer 26

This is an example of how the stimulus can be generalised to other similar things

Question 27

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
1. Stimulus generalisation:
Pavlov found that if he varied the bell pitch and tone, the dogs would still salivate.
This meant that if a stimulus has characteristics close to the conditioned stimulus, then the association would also be made to that new stimulus.
In the case of Watson and Rayner’s ‘Little Albert’ study, the little boy was not only frightened by the original white rat, but also other small furry animals and white fluffy objects.
This is an example of how the stimulus can be generalised to other similar things.
What is stimulus generalisation?

Answer 27

Stimulus generalisation is when a stimulus becomes generalised to other related stimuli that are also associated with the conditioned response

Question 28

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
2. Stimulus discrimination:
At some point, there has to be a cut-off point, where what?

Answer 28

At some point, there has to be a cut-off point, where:

1. The association will not be made
2. The stimulus generalisation will not occur

Question 29

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
2. Stimulus discrimination:
At some point, there has to be a cut-off point, where the association will not be made and the stimulus generalisation will not occur.
This is called stimulus discrimination and happens when what?

Answer 29

This:

1. Is called stimulus discrimination
2. Happens when the characteristics of the conditioned stimulus and an object become too different to be generalised

Question 30

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
2. Stimulus discrimination:
At some point, there has to be a cut-off point, where the association will not be made and the stimulus generalisation will not occur.
This is called stimulus discrimination and happens when the characteristics of the conditioned stimulus and an object become too different to be generalised.
Example

Answer 30

For example, Little Albert would not associate a big brown dog with fear, because, although it is an animal, it varies in:

1. Size
2. Colour
3. Type

Question 31

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
2. Stimulus discrimination:
At some point, there has to be a cut-off point, where the association will not be made and the stimulus generalisation will not occur.
This is called stimulus discrimination and happens when the characteristics of the conditioned stimulus and an object become too different to be generalised.
For example, Little Albert would not associate a big brown dog with fear, because, although it is an animal, it varies in size, colour and type.
What is stimulus discrimination?

Answer 31

Stimulus discrimination is when a stimulus is not associated with the conditioned response, because it is too different from the original stimulus

Question 32

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
3. Time contiguity (temporal contiguity):
What did Pavlov find?

Answer 32

Pavlov found that the association only occurs if the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus are presented:
1. At the same time
Or,
2. Around the same time
as each other

Question 33

When dogs hear a bell, there is no reflex response (apart from maybe pricking up their ears), so Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.
The sound of the bell then became associated with the food.
This eventually meant that whenever he rang the bell, the dogs would salivate, even if there was no food present.
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - Stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and time contiguity (temporal contiguity).
3. Time contiguity (temporal contiguity):
Pavlov found that the association only occurs if the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus are presented at the same time or around the same time
as each other.
What happens if the time lapse between presentations is too great?

Answer 33

If the time lapse between presentations is too great, then no association will be made

Question 34

Operant conditioning is another learning principle of the behaviourist approach.
It works on the principle of learning by consequence.
There are how many key ways this can occur?

Answer 34

There are 3 key ways this can occur:

1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Punishment

Question 35

Operant conditioning is another learning principle of the behaviourist approach.
It works on the principle of learning by consequence.
There are 3 key ways this can occur - Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
What is operant conditioning?

Answer 35

Operant conditioning is learning due to the:
1. Positive
Or,
2. Negative
consequences of the behaviour

Question 36

Operant conditioning is another learning principle of the behaviourist approach.
It works on the principle of learning by consequence.
There are 3 key ways this can occur - Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
What is positive reinforcement?

Answer 36

Positive reinforcement is that a behaviour is more likely to reoccur, because of positive consequences

Question 37

Operant conditioning is another learning principle of the behaviourist approach.
It works on the principle of learning by consequence.
There are 3 key ways this can occur - Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
What is negative reinforcement?

Answer 37

Negative reinforcement is that a behaviour is more likely to reoccur, because of avoidance of negative consequences

Question 38

Operant conditioning is another learning principle of the behaviourist approach.
It works on the principle of learning by consequence.
There are 3 key ways this can occur - Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
What is punishment?

Answer 38

Punishment is that a behaviour is less likely to reoccur, because of negative consequences

Question 39

Operant conditioning is another learning principle of the behaviourist approach.
It works on the principle of learning by consequence.
There are 3 key ways this can occur - Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
To apply this to a school example of whether to complete a piece of homework or not:
1. The positive reinforcement would be teacher approval and praise and potential better grades.
2. The negative reinforcement would be avoiding the teacher’s anger, avoiding disapproval or disappointment from teachers and parents and avoiding sanctions, such as a detention.

What would both of these be more likely to make you do?

Answer 39

Both of these would be more likely to make you do the homework

Question 40

Operant conditioning is another learning principle of the behaviourist approach.
It works on the principle of learning by consequence.
There are 3 key ways this can occur - Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
To apply this to a school example of whether to complete a piece of homework or not:
1. The positive reinforcement would be teacher approval and praise and potential better grades.
2. The negative reinforcement would be avoiding the teacher’s anger, avoiding disapproval or disappointment from teachers and parents and avoiding sanctions, such as a detention.

Both of these would be more likely to make you do the homework.

However:
3. The punishment for not completing homework would be teacher’s anger, disapproval or disappointment from teachers and parents and sanctions, such as a detention.

What does this do?

Answer 40

This makes not doing the homework less likely

Question 41

Where is operant conditioning used widely in society?

Answer 41

Operant conditioning is used widely in society as a principle in:

1. Schools
2. Prisons
3. The home

Question 42

The ‘Law of Effect’ was generated from work by Thorndike (1898) and underpinned the principles of operant conditioning.
Thorndike’s work observing how cats managed to escape a puzzle box where they were required to pull on a latch was pivotal in formulating operant conditioning.
The first time the cats were put in the box, it took them time to escape, as it happened by change, but once they had learned that they could escape by pulling the latch, they did so straight away in subsequent trials.
Why was this?

Answer 42

This was because pulling the latch was positively reinforced, as it led to them escaping

Question 43

The ‘Law of Effect’ was generated from work by Thorndike (1898) and underpinned the principles of operant conditioning.
Thorndike’s work observing how cats managed to escape a puzzle box where they were required to pull on a latch was pivotal in formulating operant conditioning.
The first time the cats were put in the box, it took them time to escape, as it happened by change, but once they had learned that they could escape by pulling the latch, they did so straight away in subsequent trials.
This was because pulling the latch was positively reinforced, as it led to them escaping.
There was also a fish within sight outside the box, which acted as further reward once they were out of the box.

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as what, but did conduct some experimentation on humans?

Answer 43

Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as:
1. Rats
2. Pigeons
,but did conduct some experimentation on humans

Question 44

Operant conditioning - What can have a significant impact on the strength and rate of the response?

Answer 44

When and how often we reinforce a behaviour can have a significant impact on the:
1. Strength
2. Rate
of the response

Question 45

How many types of reinforcement schedules are there?

Answer 45

There are 2 types of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous reinforcement
2. Partial reinforcement

Question 46

There are 2 types of reinforcement schedules - Continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.
1. Continuous reinforcement:
What happens in continuous reinforcement?

Answer 46

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs

Question 47

There are 2 types of reinforcement schedules - Continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.
1. Continuous reinforcement:
In continuous reinforcement, the desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs.
What may this result in?

Answer 47

This may result in a stronger response

Question 48

There are 2 types of reinforcement schedules - Continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.
2. Partial reinforcement:
What happens in partial reinforcement?

Answer 48

In partial reinforcement, the desired behaviour is reinforced only part of the time

Question 49

There are 2 types of reinforcement schedules - Continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.
2. Partial reinforcement:
In partial reinforcement, the desired behaviour is reinforced only part of the time.
What effect does this have?

Answer 49

This has a weaker effect

Question 50

Evaluation of the behaviourist approach:
For:
1. Behaviourists use scientific methods to investigate human behaviour and there is seen to be credibility in their methods.
Scientific - only studies observable and measurable behaviour, adopting on objective approach.
Thoughts and feelings are operationalised in terms of stimulus and response behaviours, allowing them to be quantified.
Also, easy to verify.

2. Behaviourists’ ideas are used widely to help change behaviour that is seen to be negative and to encourage positive behaviour.
   For example, behaviour modification strategies used in prisons and schools.
3. Behaviourism allows psychologists to investigate the effect of the environment on behaviour.
4. Behaviourism is very scientific and usually uses controlled experimental methods.
5. Behaviourism provides a strong counter-argument to the nature side of the nature-nurture debate.
6. Behaviourism has many useful applications, such as treating phobias with sensitive desensitisation.
   Behaviourist principles have been successfully applied in the real world in therapies (token economy, aversion therapy and systematic desensitisation), as well as education and parenting (operant conditioning for behaviour management).

Against:
1. Behaviourists do not consider the influence of thought and cognitive processes, as they are not observable.

2. Behaviourists do not argue that we have control over our own behaviour, which is deterministic.
   This means that there are ramifications for legislation, such as the idea of someone not being in control of their actions if they commit a crime.
3. Any spontaneous behaviour that occurs in humans in not easily explained by the behaviourists’ principles of classical and operant conditioning.
4. Behaviourists use animal research in their work and it is argued that this is not appropriate due to the differences in the complexity of human and animal behaviour.
   The opposing argument is that it is more ethical to test animals in this way than testing humans.
5. Behaviourism is reductionist, as it ignores the influences of nature and cognition on behaviour.
6. The use of behaviourism often relies on laboratory experiments that lack ecological validity.
7. Ethical concerns may be raised.
8. Many animal studies are used that open up the ethical debate/cause problems when generalising to humans.
9. Nature vs nurture - only looks at environmental influences on behaviour, therefore ignores the role of nature.
   It also exaggerates the role of nurture as if everything was learned, then everyone could become a surgeon or an athlete, which is unrealistic as innate factors must surely play a role in shaping behaviour.
10. Deterministic - believes that behaviour is shaped by external factors that an individual has no control over.
    It suggests that people do not make their own choices of how to behave and therefore ignores the idea of free will and gives a mechanistic view of behaviour.
11. Generalisability - assumptions such as classical and operant conditioning were developed through research with animals.
    Limited generalisations possible as there is no guarantee that humans will behave in the same way.
    Animal experiments are viewed as unethical.

Answer 50

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Question 51

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment, meaning that a person has no identity until when?

Answer 51

Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment, meaning that a person has no identity until after birth

Question 52

Behaviourism - We are born as a tabula rasa (blank state).
Behaviour is learned from experience.
Everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment, meaning that a person has no identity until after birth.
What is completely ignored (Watson)?

Answer 52

The influence of genetics on behaviour is completely ignored (Watson)

Question 53

Humans and animals learn in similar ways.

There are only what differences between humans and animals?

Answer 53

There are only quantitative differences between humans and animals

Question 54

Humans and animals learn in similar ways.

There are only quantitative differences between humans and animals (for example what)?

Answer 54

There are only quantitative differences between humans and animals (for example brain size)

Question 55

Humans and animals learn in similar ways.

There are only quantitative differences between humans and animals (for example brain size), therefore what?

Answer 55

There are only quantitative differences between humans and animals (for example brain size), therefore studying animals and applying it to humans is promoted

Question 56

Humans and animals learn in similar ways.
There are only quantitative differences between humans and animals (for example brain size), therefore studying animals and applying it to humans is promoted.
Example

Answer 56

For example, we can assume that if rats learn through positive reinforcement, then humans will, too (Skinner)

Question 57

Classical conditioning is learning by association.

If two stimuli are paired together on several occasions, what will a person/animal learn to do (Pavlov)?

Answer 57

If two stimuli are paired together on several occasions, a person/animal will learn to respond to the second stimulus alone as they originally did to the first stimulus (Pavlov)

Question 58

Application of the behaviourist approach:
Gambling:
Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning showed that if the pigeon was rewarded with a food pellet every time it pecked a disc,

Answer 58

Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning showed that if the pigeon was rewarded with a food pellet every time it pecked a disc, it would quickly become satiated (full), so would stop the conditioned behaviour

Question 59

Application of the behaviourist approach:
Gambling:
Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning showed that if the pigeon was rewarded with a food pellet every time it pecked a disc, it would quickly become satiated (full), so would stop the conditioned behaviour.
By introducing a what, thus making the reward unpredictable, the behaviour would be prolonged?

Answer 59

By introducing a variable ratio schedule, thus making the reward unpredictable, the behaviour would be prolonged

Question 60

Application of the behaviourist approach:
Gambling:
Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning showed that if the pigeon was rewarded with a food pellet every time it pecked a disc, it would quickly become satiated (full), so would stop the conditioned behaviour.
By introducing a variable ratio schedule, thus making the reward unpredictable, the behaviour would be prolonged.
This can be applied to human behaviours such as gambling, how?

Answer 60

This can be applied to human behaviours such as gambling, as the individual’s behaviour will be prolonged due to the unpredictability of the win

Question 61

Application of the behaviourist approach:
Gaming:
David Wong (2005)

Answer 61

David Wong (2005) in ‘5 creepy ways video games are trying to get you addicted’ applies Skinner’s principles to explain how video games use reinforcement contingencies and rewards for specific behaviours such as killing zombies or successfully completing a level

Question 62

Application of the behaviourist approach:
Gaming:
David Wong (2005) in ‘5 creepy ways video games are trying to get you addicted’ applies Skinner’s principles to explain how video games use reinforcement contingencies and rewards for specific behaviours such as killing zombies or successfully completing a level.
Arguably, what?

Answer 62

Arguably, using a joystick or games controller is comparable to the behaviour of the rat in Skinner’s box

Question 63

Application of the behaviourist approach:
Gaming:
David Wong (2005) in ‘5 creepy ways video games are trying to get you addicted’ applies Skinner’s principles to explain how video games use reinforcement contingencies and rewards for specific behaviours such as killing zombies or successfully completing a level.
Arguably, using a joystick or games controller is comparable to the behaviour of the rat in Skinner’s box.
What can negative reinforcement be said to apply to?

Answer 63

Negative reinforcement can be said to apply to games that encourage continued play by ‘blocking’ players if they leave the game early

Question 64

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

What did Skinner’s box for rats contain?

Answer 64

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute

Question 65

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that what?

Answer 65

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it

Question 66

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
What were there also?

Answer 66

There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed

Question 67

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as what in some of the trials?

Answer 67

There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials

Question 68

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor

Answer 68

The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified

Question 69

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that what?

Answer 69

The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required

Question 70

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required.
What provided punishment to the rats?

Answer 70

The electric shock provided punishment to the rats

Question 71

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required.
The electric shock provided punishment to the rats.
What would then be reinforced?

Answer 71

Actions to avoid the shocks would then be reinforced

Question 72

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required.
The electric shock provided punishment to the rats.
Actions to avoid the shocks would then be reinforced, an example of what?

Answer 72

Actions to avoid the shocks would then be reinforced, an example of negative reinforcement

Question 73

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required.
The electric shock provided punishment to the rats.
Actions to avoid the shocks would then be reinforced, an example of negative reinforcement.
Using the terms of operant conditioning in Skinner’s research, what can we say?

Answer 73

Using the terms of operant conditioning in Skinner’s research, we can say that:

1. The pellet is the positive reinforcement
2. The electrified floor is the punishment
3. The negative reinforcement is the avoidance of the electrified floor or punishment

Question 74

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required.
The electric shock provided punishment to the rats.
Actions to avoid the shocks would then be reinforced, an example of negative reinforcement.
Using the terms of operant conditioning in Skinner’s research, we can say that the pellet is the positive reinforcement, the electrified floor is the punishment and the negative reinforcement is the avoidance of the electrified floor or punishment.
What did Skinner observe?

Answer 74

Skinner observed that as soon as a rat learned that it would get a pellet when pressing the lever, it would keep doing so (as the behaviour was positively reinforced)

Question 75

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required.
The electric shock provided punishment to the rats.
Actions to avoid the shocks would then be reinforced, an example of negative reinforcement.
Using the terms of operant conditioning in Skinner’s research, we can say that the pellet is the positive reinforcement, the electrified floor is the punishment and the negative reinforcement is the avoidance of the electrified floor or punishment.
Skinner observed that as soon as a rat learned that it would get a pellet when pressing the lever, it would keep doing so (as the behaviour was positively reinforced).
When then becomes a learned behaviour?

Answer 75

The pressing of the lever then becomes a learned behaviour

Question 76

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required.
The electric shock provided punishment to the rats.
Actions to avoid the shocks would then be reinforced, an example of negative reinforcement.
Using the terms of operant conditioning in Skinner’s research, we can say that the pellet is the positive reinforcement, the electrified floor is the punishment and the negative reinforcement is the avoidance of the electrified floor or punishment.
Skinner observed that as soon as a rat learned that it would get a pellet when pressing the lever, it would keep doing so (as the behaviour was positively reinforced).
The pressing of the lever then becomes a learned behaviour, as what?

Answer 76

The pressing of the lever then becomes a learned behaviour, as the rat learns that it will be rewarded with a pellet every time it presses the lever

Question 77

Skinner was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement.
Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons, but did conduct some experimentation on humans.

Skinner’s box for rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, so that the rat could eat it.
There were also loudspeakers and lights that acted as visual and auditory signals when needed, which acted as cues in some of the trials.
The floor was metal and had the capacity to be electrified, so that an electric shock could be administered to the rat if the experiment so required.
The electric shock provided punishment to the rats.
Actions to avoid the shocks would then be reinforced, an example of negative reinforcement.
Using the terms of operant conditioning in Skinner’s research, we can say that the pellet is the positive reinforcement, the electrified floor is the punishment and the negative reinforcement is the avoidance of the electrified floor or punishment.
Skinner observed that as soon as a rat learned that it would get a pellet when pressing the lever, it would keep doing so (as the behaviour was positively reinforced).
The pressing of the lever then becomes a learned behaviour, as the rat learns that it will be rewarded with a pellet every time it presses the lever.
What is this called?

Answer 77

This is called continuous reinforcement

Question 78

Behaviourists reject what and focus on observable behaviour?

Answer 78

Behaviourists reject introspection and focus on observable behaviour

Question 79

Behaviourists reject introspection and focus on observable behaviour.
Is learning the same in all species?

Answer 79

Learning is the same in all species

Question 80

Both positive and negative reinforcement encourage behaviour, whereas what?

Answer 80

Both positive and negative reinforcement encourage behaviour, whereas punishment decreases the likelihood of behaviour

Question 81

What do learning theories include?

Answer 81

Learning theories include:

1. Behaviourism (classical conditioning and operant conditioning)
2. Social learning theory

Question 82

Learning theories include behaviourism (classical conditioning and operant conditioning) and social learning theory.
What is behaviourism?

Answer 82

Behaviourism is only classical conditioning and operant conditioning