2.5: Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974)

Question 1

What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 1

The aim of Loftus and Palmer’s study was to assess the extent to which participants’ estimates of the speed of cars involved in accidents witnessed on video could be influenced by misleading questions

Question 2

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
What is the method and procedure of experiment one?

Answer 2

The method and procedure of experiment one was that 45 university students were each shown 7 video clips of car crashes

Question 3

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The method and procedure of experiment one was that 45 university students were each shown 7 video clips of car crashes.
What did participants do, after each accident?

Answer 3

After each accident, participants:

1. Wrote an account of what they could recall
2. Answered a specific questionnaire

Question 4

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The method and procedure of experiment one was that 45 university students were each shown 7 video clips of car crashes.
After each accident, participants wrote an account of what they could recall and answered a specific questionnaire.
What was there one question being to estimate?

Answer 4

There was one critical question being to estimate the speed of the vehicles

Question 5

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The method and procedure of experiment one was that 45 university students were each shown 7 video clips of car crashes.
After each accident, participants wrote an account of what they could recall and answered a specific questionnaire.
There was one critical question being to estimate the speed of the vehicles.
How many conditions were there?

Answer 5

There were 5 conditions

Question 6

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The method and procedure of experiment one was that 45 university students were each shown 7 video clips of car crashes.
After each accident, participants wrote an account of what they could recall and answered a specific questionnaire.
There was one critical question being to estimate the speed of the vehicles.
There were 5 conditions, with how many participants in each condition?

Answer 6

There were 5 conditions, with 9 participants in each condition

Question 7

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The method and procedure of experiment one was that 45 university students were each shown 7 video clips of car crashes.
After each accident, participants wrote an account of what they could recall and answered a specific questionnaire.
There was one critical question being to estimate the speed of the vehicles.
There were 5 conditions, with 9 participants in each condition, with the conditions varying through what?

Answer 7

There were 5 conditions, with 9 participants in each condition, with the conditions varying through which verb was used in asking the key question

Question 8

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The method and procedure of experiment one was that 45 university students were each shown 7 video clips of car crashes.
After each accident, participants wrote an account of what they could recall and answered a specific questionnaire.
There was one critical question being to estimate the speed of the vehicles.
There were 5 conditions, with 9 participants in each condition, with the conditions varying through which verb was used in asking the key question - what?

Answer 8

There were 5 conditions, with 9 participants in each condition, with the conditions varying through which verb was used in asking the key question -
1. 'Contacted'
2. 'Hit'
3. 'Bumped'
4. ' Collided'
Or,
5. 'Smashed'

Question 9

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The method and procedure of experiment one was that 45 university students were each shown 7 video clips of car crashes.
After each accident, participants wrote an account of what they could recall and answered a specific questionnaire.
There was one critical question being to estimate the speed of the vehicles.
There were 5 conditions, with 9 participants in each condition, with the conditions varying through which verb was used in asking the key question - ‘Contacted’ , ‘hit’ , ‘bumped’ , ‘collided’ or ‘smashed.’
The participants’ estimations of speed were then what?

Answer 9

The participants’ estimations of speed were then recorded

Question 10

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The findings of experiment one are that:
1. For the verb of contacted, what was the mean estimate of speed?

Answer 10

The findings of experiment one are that for the verb of contacted, the mean estimate of speed was 31.8 m/h

Question 11

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The findings of experiment one are that:
1. For the verb of contacted, the mean estimate of speed was 31.8 m/h.
2. For the verb of hit, what was the mean estimate of speed?

Answer 11

The findings of experiment one are that for the verb of hit, the mean estimate of speed was 34 m/h

Question 12

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The findings of experiment one are that:
1. For the verb of contacted, the mean estimate of speed was 31.8 m/h.
2. For the verb of hit, the mean estimate of speed was 34 m/h.
3. For the verb of bumped, what was the mean estimate of speed?

Answer 12

The findings of experiment one are that for the verb of bumped, the mean estimate of speed was 38.1 m/h

Question 13

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The findings of experiment one are that:
1. For the verb of contacted, the mean estimate of speed was 31.8 m/h.
2. For the verb of hit, the mean estimate of speed was 34 m/h.
3. For the verb of bumped, the mean estimate of speed was 38.1 m/h.
4. For the verb of collided, what was the mean estimate of speed?

Answer 13

The findings of experiment one are that for the verb of collided, the mean estimate of speed was 39.3 m/h

Question 14

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment one:
The findings of experiment one are that:
1. For the verb of contacted, the mean estimate of speed was 31.8 m/h.
2. For the verb of hit, the mean estimate of speed was 34 m/h.
3. For the verb of bumped, the mean estimate of speed was 38.1 m/h.
4. For the verb of collided, the mean estimate of speed was 39.3 m/h.
5. For the verb of smashed, what was the mean estimate of speed?

Answer 14

The findings of experiment one are that for the verb of smashed, the mean estimate of speed was 40.8 m/h

Question 15

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
What was the method and procedure of experiment two (the broken glass study)?

Answer 15

The method and procedure of experiment two (the broken glass study) is that 150 student participants viewed a video of a multi-vehicle car crash

Question 16

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
The method and procedure of experiment two (the broken glass study) is that 150 student participants viewed a video of a multi-vehicle car crash.
50 were asked what, 50 with what and a what group of 50 what?

Answer 16

1. 50 were asked the key question with the word ‘smashed’ in it
2. 50 with the word ‘hit’
3. A control group of 50 weren’t asked anything about the speed at all

Question 17

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
The method and procedure of experiment two (the broken glass study) is that 150 student participants viewed a video of a multi-vehicle car crash.
50 were asked the key question with the word ‘smashed’ in it, 50 with the word ‘hit’ and a control group of 50 weren’t asked anything about the speed at all.
How long later the participants were what?

Answer 17

One week later, the participants were questioned about their memory of the event

Question 18

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
The method and procedure of experiment two (the broken glass study) is that 150 student participants viewed a video of a multi-vehicle car crash.
50 were asked the key question with the word ‘smashed’ in it, 50 with the word ‘hit’ and a control group of 50 weren’t asked anything about the speed at all.
One week later, the participants were questioned about their memory of the event, with the key question being what?

Answer 18

One week later, the participants were questioned about their memory of the event, with the key question being ‘Did you see any broken glass?’

Question 19

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
The method and procedure of experiment two (the broken glass study) is that 150 student participants viewed a video of a multi-vehicle car crash.
50 were asked the key question with the word ‘smashed’ in it, 50 with the word ‘hit’ and a control group of 50 weren’t asked anything about the speed at all.
One week later, the participants were questioned about their memory of the event, with the key question being ‘Did you see any broken glass?’ even though what?

Answer 19

One week later, the participants were questioned about their memory of the event, with the key question being ‘Did you see any broken glass?’ even though there was none in the film

Question 20

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
The method and procedure of experiment two (the broken glass study) is that 150 student participants viewed a video of a multi-vehicle car crash.
50 were asked the key question with the word ‘smashed’ in it, 50 with the word ‘hit’ and a control group of 50 weren’t asked anything about the speed at all.
One week later, the participants were questioned about their memory of the event, with the key question being ‘Did you see any broken glass?’ even though there was none in the film.
What was then recorded?

Answer 20

The number of participants who recalled broken glass was then recorded

Question 21

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
The findings of experiment two (the broken glass study) are that:
1. In the ‘smashed’ condition, what was the number of participants who recalled broken glass?

Answer 21

The findings of experiment two (the broken glass study) are that in the ‘smashed’ condition, the number of participants who recalled broken glass was 16

Question 22

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
The findings of experiment two (the broken glass study) are that:
1. In the ‘smashed’ condition, the number of participants who recalled broken glass was 16 (34 said no).
2. In the ‘hit’ condition, what was the number of participants who recalled broken glass?

Answer 22

The findings of experiment two (the broken glass study) are that in the ‘hit’ condition, the number of participants who recalled broken glass was 7

Question 23

The method and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study:
Experiment two:
The findings of experiment two (the broken glass study) are that:
1. In the ‘smashed’ condition, the number of participants who recalled broken glass was 16 (34 said no).
2. In the ‘hit’ condition, the number of participants who recalled broken glass was 7 (43 said no).
3. In the control condition, what was the number of participants who recalled broken glass?

Answer 23

The findings of experiment two (the broken glass study) are that in the control condition, the number of participants who recalled broken glass was 6

Question 24

The conclusions of Loftus and Palmer’s study are that experiment one showed that misleading information in the form of what can affect what?

Answer 24

The conclusions of Loftus and Palmer’s study are that experiment one showed that misleading information in the form of leading questions can affect memory recall of eyewitnesses

Question 25

The conclusions of Loftus and Palmer's study are that experiment one showed that misleading information in the form of leading questions can affect memory recall of eyewitnesses.
Experiment two (the broken glass study) showed that misleading information in the form of what can also do what?

Answer 25

Experiment two (the broken glass study) showed that misleading information in the form of post-event information can also affect memory recall of eyewitnesses

Question 26

The conclusions of Loftus and Palmer's study are that experiment one showed that misleading information in the form of leading questions can affect memory recall of eyewitnesses.
Experiment two (the broken glass study) showed that misleading information in the form of post-event information can also affect memory recall of eyewitnesses.
What do both studies suggest?

Answer 26

Both studies suggest that at recall, misleading information is reconstructed with material from the original memory

Question 27

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on what?

Answer 27

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task

Question 28

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (doing what)?

Answer 28

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos)

Question 29

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks what?

Answer 29

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is:

1. A laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos)
2. As such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios

Question 30

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios.
Therefore, what does it have?

Answer 30

Therefore, it has low ecological validity

Question 31

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios.
Therefore, it has low ecological validity, why?

Answer 31

Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment

Question 32

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios.
Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment, so what?

Answer 32

Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment, so we cannot generalise these findings

Question 33

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios.
Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment, so we cannot generalise these findings, why?

Answer 33

Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment, so we cannot generalise these findings, because the study was too artificial

Question 34

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios.
Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment, so we cannot generalise these findings, because the study was too artificial.
Witnessing real car crashes would have had what and thus would do what?

Answer 34

Witnessing real car crashes would:

1. Have had much more of an emotional impact
2. Thus would affect recall differently

Question 35

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios.
Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment, so we cannot generalise these findings, because the study was too artificial.
Witnessing real car crashes would have had much more of an emotional impact and thus would affect recall differently.
Although the study can be replicated to check the results and so is high in reliability, what may the results be due to?

Answer 35

Although the study:
1. Can be replicated to check the results
2. So is high in reliability
,the results may be due to demand characteristics

Question 36

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios.
Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment, so we cannot generalise these findings, because the study was too artificial.
Witnessing real car crashes would have had much more of an emotional impact and thus would affect recall differently.
Although the study can be replicated to check the results and so is high in reliability, the results may be due to demand characteristics, rather than what?

Answer 36

Although the study:
1. Can be replicated to check the results
2. So is high in reliability
,the results may be due to demand characteristics, rather than genuine changes in memory

Question 37

The evaluation of Loftus and Palmer’s study is that the study is a laboratory experiment centred on an artificial task (watching videos) and as such lacks relevance to real-life EWT scenarios.
Therefore, it has low ecological validity, because it was carried out in a highly controlled environment, so we cannot generalise these findings, because the study was too artificial.
Witnessing real car crashes would have had much more of an emotional impact and thus would affect recall differently.
Although the study can be replicated to check the results and so is high in reliability, the results may be due to demand characteristics, rather than genuine changes in memory.
Participants may have just given the answer they thought the researchers wanted, as suggested by what?

Answer 37

Participants may have just given the answer they thought the researchers wanted, as suggested by which verb they heard in the key question