8) Language & Decisions

Question 1

Thinking

Answer 1

Any mental activity or processing of info

Learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, deciding

Question 2

Cognitive Economy

Answer 2

Our minds use heuristics to increase thinking efficiency

Allows us to simplify and keep info we need to a minimum, less mental effort

Useful but can oversimplify things…

Question 3

Cognitive Bias

Answer 3

systematic error in thinking

allow judgments to be influenced by personal preferences, beliefs, or feelings

• representative heuristic
• availability heuristic
• hindsight bias

Question 4

Representative heuristic

Answer 4

Judge probability of an event based on similarity to a prototype or how prevalent it was in the past

We aren’t good at considering base rate info (how common smt is)

Question 5

Availability Heuristic

Answer 5

estimate likelihood of occurrence based on how easily it comes to mind

Question 6

hindsight bias

Answer 6

after smt happened, we tend to overestimate how well we could have predicted it

Question 7

Decision making

Answer 7

Process of choosing among possible options
Framing = the way a question is formed can influence decisions

Question 8

Language must be

Answer 8

1. Symbolic
   Spoken, signed, written words to represent
   objects / actions / ideas
2. Semantic
   Meaning of words and word combos
   Denotation = dictionary definition
   Connotation = ideas / feelings invoked by word
3. Generative
   Infinite number of combinations
4. Structured
   There’s rules (noun, verb, adj)
   Sentences, phrases, words, morphemes, phonemes

Question 9

denotation vs connotation

Answer 9

dictionary definition
vs
ideas / feelings invoked by word

Question 10

phonemes

Answer 10

Smallest unit of speech that can be distinguished
The sounds, consonants, vowels

Each letter can produce diff phoneme
ex/ the A in father vs take

Question 11

Morphemes

Answer 11

Smallest units of meaning in a language
- Root words
- Combinations / adding prefixes or suffixes

ex/ friend, able, un

Question 12

Pragmatics

Answer 12

Rules that govern the practical aspects of using language
Context and who is speaking impacts meaning

• extra linguistic information
• syntax

Question 13

Extra linguistic information

Answer 13

Elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting meaning

Facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, context

Question 13

Syntax

Answer 13

System of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences

Article, noun, verb

Question 14

Dialect

Answer 14

Language variation used by group of people who live in same place or ethnic background

Question 15

Sign language

Answer 15

Using visual communication developed by community with hearing loss

Has its own phonemes, words, syntax

Babies who learn sign language go through same stages as spoken languages
- Same brain areas are involved
- Babble with hands

Question 16

Misconceptions about sign language

Answer 16

1. People with hearing loss don’t need sign language because they can lip read

Most skilled lip reader can only pick up 30% cuz most of work is not done on lips

2. Learning to sign slows ability of children with hearing loss to learn to speak

Learning sign language speeds up process of learning to talk

3. ASL is just english translated word for word into signs

Syntax is completely different!

Question 17

Bilingual pros and cons

Answer 17

Proficient and fluent at speaking and understanding two languages

One language is dominant
(usually first one learned, used most often)

Cons:
Delay syntax development

Pros:
Enhanced metalinguistic insight
Protection from cognitive decline

Question 18

Metalinguistic

Answer 18

Awareness of how language is structured and used

Question 19

A series of letters (a word) may have different meanings in the same language.
This refers to _________.
The same series of letters may be pronounced differently in another language.
These are referred to as ________.

Answer 19

semantics
phonemes

Question 20

Language Acquisition timeline

Answer 20

In the womb (utero)
Hear mother’s voice
Recognize repeated stories & songs
Recognize characteristics of native tongue
Babies are paying attention to language already

Just after birth
1 to 4 day old babies respond to speech more than non speech sounds

1-5 months
Reflexive communication
Can distinguish between language vs non language
Can distinguish between ALL phonemes
Even phonemes in other languages

6-18 months
Babbling: intentional vocalization that lack meaning

10-13 months
First words

12-18 months
50 to 100 words

18-24 months
Vocabulary spurt

Question 21

Growing pains

Answer 21

1. Overextension
   - Incorrectly uses word to describe wider set of objects or actions than intended
2. Underextension
   - Incorrectly uses word to describe narrower set of objects or actions than intended
3. Telegraphic Speech
   - Phrases that omit articles, prepositions, and less critical words
4. Overregularization
   - Grammatical rules incorrectly applied or generalized

Question 22

Briefly describe the different theories of language acquisition

Answer 22

Behaviorist Theories
Envo / nurture
Skinner suggest children learn language through imitation of models (copying), reinforcement, and other principles of conditioning

Nativist Theories
Biology / nature
Chomsky says humans have an innate ability to develop language
Language acquisition device

Interactionist Theories
Bit of both behaviourist and nativist

Social Pragmatics
Children infer what words mean from context and social interactions

Cognitive processing account
Ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns
No need to propose language acquisition device

Question 23

Behaviourist theories of language acquisition

Answer 23

Envo / nurture
Skinner suggest children learn language through imitation of models (copying), reinforcement, and other principles of conditioning

Criticism
Parents don’t spend that much time correcting grammar
Language is generative: kids make sentences they never heard before
Overregularization are not predicted

Question 24

Nativist theories of language acquisition

Answer 24

Biology / nature Chomsky says humans have an innate ability to develop language Language acquisition device Criticism - Can’t explain what neural components make up LAD - Unfair comparison of children vs adults (Adults have more things to think about while kids have time) - Social factors and environment DO play a role

Question 25

Language Acquisition device

Answer 25

Construct in brain believed by nativists where knowledge of syntax is 1. Language acquisition seems effortless 2. Developmental timing: most kids learn language at about the same rate 3. Cross cultural similarities 4. Optimal period to learn language

Question 26

Interactionist theories of language acquisition

Answer 26

factors all influence each other and language development: 1. biological maturation and brain development 2. cognitive development 3. linguistic environment (reinforcement)

Question 27

Social pragmatics theories of language acquisition

Answer 27

Children infer what words mean from context and social interactions Criticism Assumes children understand a lot about what others are thinking May be using a simpler process

Question 28

Cognitive processing theories of language acquisition

Answer 28

Ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns No need to propose language acquisition device Criticism Children are better at learning language than adults who are better at learning things in general Temporal lobe more active in language processing than in other types of learning Implies at least some distinctive cognitive process occurs during language

Question 29

linguistic determinism vs linguistic relativity hypothesis

Answer 29

Linguistic determinism Suggests language determines all thought Linguistic Relativity / Sapir Whorf Hypothesis Characteristics of language shape the nature of our thoughts ex/ colour, how we think of time

Question 30

What are some ways we learn to read?

Answer 30

Whole word recognition Identify common words based on appearance without having to sound them out Phonetic decomposition Sounding out words, relate printed letters and sounds Better way to keep children reading

Question 31

Speed reading

Answer 31

Ineffective: the faster we read, the more we miss Reading faster than 400 wpm greatly impairs comprehension Can increase reading speed within typical range (200-400 wpm), which also improves comprehension on timed reading tasks

Question 32

Problem Solving

Answer 32

Generate cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal Algorithm = step by step procedure used to solve problem

Question 33

Barriers to effective problem solving

Answer 33

1. Salience of surface similarities We tend to focus attention on surface-level properties of a problem and try to solve in a way that is similar to other problems 2. Focus on irrelevant info ex/ focus on the numbers 3. Functional fixedness Tendency to perceive an item in terms of its most common uses Difficulty understanding that objects can be used another way 4. Mental sets Ppl keep using problem solving that have worked in the past, even though better methods exists (stuck in a strategy & can’t generate alternatives) 5. Unnecessary constraints We tend to assume constraints that don’t exist 6. Not reflecting on intuitive solutions

Question 34

What is problem space, and what are the possible pathways to a solution?

Answer 34

Spatial metaphor used to describe process of problem solving 1. Trial & Error Try possible solutions & discard until one works 2. Algorithms Methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives to find solution 3. Heuristics Guiding principle or rule of thumb used to solve problems a. Forming subgoals b. Using analogies c. Reframing a problem d. Working backwards

Question 35

Barriers to decision making

Answer 35

Anchoring effect Making decision using prior knowledge (anchor) to keep response in limited range Framing effects Cognitive bias Diff decisions depending on how choices are presented Sunk cost fallacy Thinking further investment is warranted since resources already invested will be lost Not taking into consideration the overall losses if we stay involved Impact of Choices 1. Paralysis by analysis 2. Decreased satisfaction - opportunity costs - imagined alternatives - increased expectations - responsibility

Question 36

Impact of choices

Answer 36

1. Paralysis by analysis 2. Decreased satisfaction - opportunity costs - imagined alternatives - increased expectations - responsibility

Question 37

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Answer 37

Thinking further investment is warranted since resources already invested will be lost Not taking into consideration the overall losses if we stay involved

Question 38

Framing effect

Answer 38

Cognitive bias Diff decisions depending on how choices are presented

Question 39

Anchoring effect

Answer 39

Making decision using prior knowledge (anchor) to keep response in limited range ex/ starting point in bargaining