8) Language & Decisions Flashcards
Thinking
Any mental activity or processing of info
Learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, deciding
Cognitive Economy
Our minds use heuristics to increase thinking efficiency
Allows us to simplify and keep info we need to a minimum, less mental effort
Useful but can oversimplify things…
Cognitive Bias
systematic error in thinking
allow judgments to be influenced by personal preferences, beliefs, or feelings
- representative heuristic
- availability heuristic
- hindsight bias
Representative heuristic
Judge probability of an event based on similarity to a prototype or how prevalent it was in the past
We aren’t good at considering base rate info (how common smt is)
Availability Heuristic
estimate likelihood of occurrence based on how easily it comes to mind
hindsight bias
after smt happened, we tend to overestimate how well we could have predicted it
Decision making
Process of choosing among possible options
Framing = the way a question is formed can influence decisions
Language must be
- Symbolic
Spoken, signed, written words to represent
objects / actions / ideas - Semantic
Meaning of words and word combos
Denotation = dictionary definition
Connotation = ideas / feelings invoked by word - Generative
Infinite number of combinations - Structured
There’s rules (noun, verb, adj)
Sentences, phrases, words, morphemes, phonemes
denotation vs connotation
dictionary definition
vs
ideas / feelings invoked by word
phonemes
Smallest unit of speech that can be distinguished
The sounds, consonants, vowels
Each letter can produce diff phoneme
ex/ the A in father vs take
Morphemes
Smallest units of meaning in a language
- Root words
- Combinations / adding prefixes or suffixes
ex/ friend, able, un
Pragmatics
Rules that govern the practical aspects of using language
Context and who is speaking impacts meaning
- extra linguistic information
- syntax
Extra linguistic information
Elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting meaning
Facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, context
Syntax
System of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences
Article, noun, verb
Dialect
Language variation used by group of people who live in same place or ethnic background
Sign language
Using visual communication developed by community with hearing loss
Has its own phonemes, words, syntax
Babies who learn sign language go through same stages as spoken languages
- Same brain areas are involved
- Babble with hands
Misconceptions about sign language
- People with hearing loss don’t need sign language because they can lip read
Most skilled lip reader can only pick up 30% cuz most of work is not done on lips
- Learning to sign slows ability of children with hearing loss to learn to speak
Learning sign language speeds up process of learning to talk
- ASL is just english translated word for word into signs
Syntax is completely different!
Bilingual pros and cons
Proficient and fluent at speaking and understanding two languages
One language is dominant
(usually first one learned, used most often)
Cons:
Delay syntax development
Pros:
Enhanced metalinguistic insight
Protection from cognitive decline
Metalinguistic
Awareness of how language is structured and used
A series of letters (a word) may have different meanings in the same language.
This refers to _________.
The same series of letters may be pronounced differently in another language.
These are referred to as ________.
semantics
phonemes
Language Acquisition timeline
In the womb (utero)
Hear mother’s voice
Recognize repeated stories & songs
Recognize characteristics of native tongue
Babies are paying attention to language already
Just after birth
1 to 4 day old babies respond to speech more than non speech sounds
1-5 months
Reflexive communication
Can distinguish between language vs non language
Can distinguish between ALL phonemes
Even phonemes in other languages
6-18 months
Babbling: intentional vocalization that lack meaning
10-13 months
First words
12-18 months
50 to 100 words
18-24 months
Vocabulary spurt
Growing pains
- Overextension
- Incorrectly uses word to describe wider set of objects or actions than intended - Underextension
- Incorrectly uses word to describe narrower set of objects or actions than intended - Telegraphic Speech
- Phrases that omit articles, prepositions, and less critical words - Overregularization
- Grammatical rules incorrectly applied or generalized
Briefly describe the different theories of language acquisition
Behaviorist Theories
Envo / nurture
Skinner suggest children learn language through imitation of models (copying), reinforcement, and other principles of conditioning
Nativist Theories
Biology / nature
Chomsky says humans have an innate ability to develop language
Language acquisition device
Interactionist Theories
Bit of both behaviourist and nativist
Social Pragmatics
Children infer what words mean from context and social interactions
Cognitive processing account
Ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns
No need to propose language acquisition device
Behaviourist theories of language acquisition
Envo / nurture
Skinner suggest children learn language through imitation of models (copying), reinforcement, and other principles of conditioning
Criticism
Parents don’t spend that much time correcting grammar
Language is generative: kids make sentences they never heard before
Overregularization are not predicted
Nativist theories of language acquisition
Biology / nature
Chomsky says humans have an innate ability to develop language
Language acquisition device
Criticism
- Can’t explain what neural components make up LAD
- Unfair comparison of children vs adults
(Adults have more things to think about while kids have time)
- Social factors and environment DO play a role
Language Acquisition device
Construct in brain believed by nativists where knowledge of syntax is
- Language acquisition seems effortless
- Developmental timing: most kids learn language at about the same rate
- Cross cultural similarities
- Optimal period to learn language
Interactionist theories of language acquisition
factors all influence each other and language development:
- biological maturation and brain development
- cognitive development
- linguistic environment (reinforcement)
Social pragmatics theories of language acquisition
Children infer what words mean from context and social interactions
Criticism
Assumes children understand a lot about what others are thinking
May be using a simpler process
Cognitive processing theories of language acquisition
Ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns
No need to propose language acquisition device
Criticism
Children are better at learning language than adults who are better at learning things in general
Temporal lobe more active in language processing than in other types of learning
Implies at least some distinctive cognitive process occurs during language
linguistic determinism vs linguistic relativity hypothesis
Linguistic determinism
Suggests language determines all thought
Linguistic Relativity / Sapir Whorf Hypothesis
Characteristics of language shape the nature of our thoughts
ex/ colour, how we think of time
What are some ways we learn to read?
Whole word recognition
Identify common words based on appearance without having to sound them out
Phonetic decomposition
Sounding out words, relate printed letters and sounds
Better way to keep children reading
Speed reading
Ineffective: the faster we read, the more we miss
Reading faster than 400 wpm greatly impairs comprehension
Can increase reading speed within typical range (200-400 wpm), which also improves comprehension on timed reading tasks
Problem Solving
Generate cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
Algorithm = step by step procedure used to solve problem
Barriers to effective problem solving
- Salience of surface similarities
We tend to focus attention on surface-level properties of a problem and try to solve in a way that is similar to other problems - Focus on irrelevant info
ex/ focus on the numbers - Functional fixedness
Tendency to perceive an item in terms of its most common uses
Difficulty understanding that objects can be used another way - Mental sets
Ppl keep using problem solving that have worked in the past, even though better methods exists
(stuck in a strategy & can’t generate alternatives) - Unnecessary constraints
We tend to assume constraints that don’t exist - Not reflecting on intuitive solutions
What is problem space, and what are the possible pathways to a solution?
Spatial metaphor used to describe process of problem solving
- Trial & Error
Try possible solutions & discard until one works - Algorithms
Methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives to find solution - Heuristics
Guiding principle or rule of thumb used to solve problems
a. Forming subgoals
b. Using analogies
c. Reframing a problem
d. Working backwards
Barriers to decision making
Anchoring effect
Making decision using prior knowledge (anchor) to keep response in limited range
Framing effects
Cognitive bias
Diff decisions depending on how choices are presented
Sunk cost fallacy
Thinking further investment is warranted since resources already invested will be lost
Not taking into consideration the overall losses if we stay involved
Impact of Choices
1. Paralysis by analysis
2. Decreased satisfaction
- opportunity costs
- imagined alternatives
- increased expectations
- responsibility
Impact of choices
- Paralysis by analysis
- Decreased satisfaction
- opportunity costs
- imagined alternatives
- increased expectations
- responsibility
Sunk Cost Fallacy
Thinking further investment is warranted since resources already invested will be lost
Not taking into consideration the overall losses if we stay involved
Framing effect
Cognitive bias
Diff decisions depending on how choices are presented
Anchoring effect
Making decision using prior knowledge (anchor) to keep response in limited range
ex/ starting point in bargaining
