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PSYC 101 > 8) Language & Decisions > Flashcards

8) Language & Decisions Flashcards

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1
Q

Thinking

A

Any mental activity or processing of info

Learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, deciding

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2
Q

Cognitive Economy

A

Our minds use heuristics to increase thinking efficiency

Allows us to simplify and keep info we need to a minimum, less mental effort

Useful but can oversimplify things…

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3
Q

Cognitive Bias

A

systematic error in thinking

allow judgments to be influenced by personal preferences, beliefs, or feelings

  • representative heuristic
  • availability heuristic
  • hindsight bias
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4
Q

Representative heuristic

A

Judge probability of an event based on similarity to a prototype or how prevalent it was in the past

We aren’t good at considering base rate info (how common smt is)

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5
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

estimate likelihood of occurrence based on how easily it comes to mind

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6
Q

hindsight bias

A

after smt happened, we tend to overestimate how well we could have predicted it

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7
Q

Decision making

A

Process of choosing among possible options
Framing = the way a question is formed can influence decisions

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8
Q

Language must be

A
  1. Symbolic
    Spoken, signed, written words to represent
    objects / actions / ideas
  2. Semantic
    Meaning of words and word combos
    Denotation = dictionary definition
    Connotation = ideas / feelings invoked by word
  3. Generative
    Infinite number of combinations
  4. Structured
    There’s rules (noun, verb, adj)
    Sentences, phrases, words, morphemes, phonemes
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9
Q

denotation vs connotation

A

dictionary definition
vs
ideas / feelings invoked by word

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10
Q

phonemes

A

Smallest unit of speech that can be distinguished
The sounds, consonants, vowels

Each letter can produce diff phoneme
ex/ the A in father vs take

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11
Q

Morphemes

A

Smallest units of meaning in a language
- Root words
- Combinations / adding prefixes or suffixes

ex/ friend, able, un

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12
Q

Pragmatics

A

Rules that govern the practical aspects of using language
Context and who is speaking impacts meaning

  • extra linguistic information
  • syntax
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13
Q

Extra linguistic information

A

Elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting meaning

Facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, context

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13
Q

Syntax

A

System of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences

Article, noun, verb

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14
Q

Dialect

A

Language variation used by group of people who live in same place or ethnic background

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15
Q

Sign language

A

Using visual communication developed by community with hearing loss

Has its own phonemes, words, syntax

Babies who learn sign language go through same stages as spoken languages
- Same brain areas are involved
- Babble with hands

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16
Q

Misconceptions about sign language

A
  1. People with hearing loss don’t need sign language because they can lip read

Most skilled lip reader can only pick up 30% cuz most of work is not done on lips

  1. Learning to sign slows ability of children with hearing loss to learn to speak

Learning sign language speeds up process of learning to talk

  1. ASL is just english translated word for word into signs

Syntax is completely different!

17
Q

Bilingual pros and cons

A

Proficient and fluent at speaking and understanding two languages

One language is dominant
(usually first one learned, used most often)

Cons:
Delay syntax development

Pros:
Enhanced metalinguistic insight
Protection from cognitive decline

18
Q

Metalinguistic

A

Awareness of how language is structured and used

19
Q

A series of letters (a word) may have different meanings in the same language.
This refers to _________.
The same series of letters may be pronounced differently in another language.
These are referred to as ________.

A

semantics
phonemes

20
Q

Language Acquisition timeline

A

In the womb (utero)
Hear mother’s voice
Recognize repeated stories & songs
Recognize characteristics of native tongue
Babies are paying attention to language already

Just after birth
1 to 4 day old babies respond to speech more than non speech sounds

1-5 months
Reflexive communication
Can distinguish between language vs non language
Can distinguish between ALL phonemes
Even phonemes in other languages

6-18 months
Babbling: intentional vocalization that lack meaning

10-13 months
First words

12-18 months
50 to 100 words

18-24 months
Vocabulary spurt

21
Q

Growing pains

A
  1. Overextension
    - Incorrectly uses word to describe wider set of objects or actions than intended
  2. Underextension
    - Incorrectly uses word to describe narrower set of objects or actions than intended
  3. Telegraphic Speech
    - Phrases that omit articles, prepositions, and less critical words
  4. Overregularization
    - Grammatical rules incorrectly applied or generalized
22
Q

Briefly describe the different theories of language acquisition

A

Behaviorist Theories
Envo / nurture
Skinner suggest children learn language through imitation of models (copying), reinforcement, and other principles of conditioning

Nativist Theories
Biology / nature
Chomsky says humans have an innate ability to develop language
Language acquisition device

Interactionist Theories
Bit of both behaviourist and nativist

Social Pragmatics
Children infer what words mean from context and social interactions

Cognitive processing account
Ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns
No need to propose language acquisition device

23
Q

Behaviourist theories of language acquisition

A

Envo / nurture
Skinner suggest children learn language through imitation of models (copying), reinforcement, and other principles of conditioning

Criticism
Parents don’t spend that much time correcting grammar
Language is generative: kids make sentences they never heard before
Overregularization are not predicted

24
Q

Nativist theories of language acquisition

A

Biology / nature
Chomsky says humans have an innate ability to develop language
Language acquisition device

Criticism
- Can’t explain what neural components make up LAD
- Unfair comparison of children vs adults
(Adults have more things to think about while kids have time)
- Social factors and environment DO play a role

25
Q

Language Acquisition device

A

Construct in brain believed by nativists where knowledge of syntax is

  1. Language acquisition seems effortless
  2. Developmental timing: most kids learn language at about the same rate
  3. Cross cultural similarities
  4. Optimal period to learn language
26
Q

Interactionist theories of language acquisition

A

factors all influence each other and language development:

  1. biological maturation and brain development
  2. cognitive development
  3. linguistic environment (reinforcement)
27
Q

Social pragmatics theories of language acquisition

A

Children infer what words mean from context and social interactions

Criticism
Assumes children understand a lot about what others are thinking
May be using a simpler process

28
Q

Cognitive processing theories of language acquisition

A

Ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns
No need to propose language acquisition device

Criticism
Children are better at learning language than adults who are better at learning things in general
Temporal lobe more active in language processing than in other types of learning
Implies at least some distinctive cognitive process occurs during language

29
Q

linguistic determinism vs linguistic relativity hypothesis

A

Linguistic determinism
Suggests language determines all thought

Linguistic Relativity / Sapir Whorf Hypothesis
Characteristics of language shape the nature of our thoughts
ex/ colour, how we think of time

30
Q

What are some ways we learn to read?

A

Whole word recognition
Identify common words based on appearance without having to sound them out

Phonetic decomposition
Sounding out words, relate printed letters and sounds
Better way to keep children reading

31
Q

Speed reading

A

Ineffective: the faster we read, the more we miss

Reading faster than 400 wpm greatly impairs comprehension

Can increase reading speed within typical range (200-400 wpm), which also improves comprehension on timed reading tasks

32
Q

Problem Solving

A

Generate cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
Algorithm = step by step procedure used to solve problem

33
Q

Barriers to effective problem solving

A
  1. Salience of surface similarities
    We tend to focus attention on surface-level properties of a problem and try to solve in a way that is similar to other problems
  2. Focus on irrelevant info
    ex/ focus on the numbers
  3. Functional fixedness
    Tendency to perceive an item in terms of its most common uses
    Difficulty understanding that objects can be used another way
  4. Mental sets
    Ppl keep using problem solving that have worked in the past, even though better methods exists
    (stuck in a strategy & can’t generate alternatives)
  5. Unnecessary constraints
    We tend to assume constraints that don’t exist
  6. Not reflecting on intuitive solutions
34
Q

What is problem space, and what are the possible pathways to a solution?

A

Spatial metaphor used to describe process of problem solving

  1. Trial & Error
    Try possible solutions & discard until one works
  2. Algorithms
    Methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives to find solution
  3. Heuristics
    Guiding principle or rule of thumb used to solve problems
    a. Forming subgoals
    b. Using analogies
    c. Reframing a problem
    d. Working backwards
35
Q

Barriers to decision making

A

Anchoring effect
Making decision using prior knowledge (anchor) to keep response in limited range

Framing effects
Cognitive bias
Diff decisions depending on how choices are presented

Sunk cost fallacy
Thinking further investment is warranted since resources already invested will be lost
Not taking into consideration the overall losses if we stay involved

Impact of Choices
1. Paralysis by analysis
2. Decreased satisfaction
- opportunity costs
- imagined alternatives
- increased expectations
- responsibility

36
Q

Impact of choices

A
  1. Paralysis by analysis
  2. Decreased satisfaction
    - opportunity costs
    - imagined alternatives
    - increased expectations
    - responsibility
37
Q

Sunk Cost Fallacy

A

Thinking further investment is warranted since resources already invested will be lost
Not taking into consideration the overall losses if we stay involved

38
Q

Framing effect

A

Cognitive bias
Diff decisions depending on how choices are presented

39
Q

Anchoring effect

A

Making decision using prior knowledge (anchor) to keep response in limited range
ex/ starting point in bargaining

PSYC 101 (15 decks)

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